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HARVEY'S  LANGUAGE  COURSE 


PRACTICAL  GRAMMAR 


OF    THE 


ENGLISH  LANGUAGE 


REVISED    EDITION 


THOS.  W.  HARVEY,  A.  M. 


Civil  &  Mechanical  Engineer. 

SAff  FKAKCISCO,  CAL. 

NEW-YORK     •:•     CINCINNATI     •:•     CHICAGO 
AMERICAN    BOOK   COMPANY 


Harvey's 
Series  of  School  Books. 


Graded  School  First  Reader, $013 

Graded  School  Second  Reader, 25 

Graded  School  Third  Reader, 36 

Graded  School  Fourth  Reader, 45 

Graded  School  Fifth  Reader, 70 

Elementary  Grammar  and  Composition, 

Revised, 42 

Practical  English  Grammar,  Revised,  .    .  65 

Graded  School  Primary  Speller,     ....  13 

Graded  School  Speller, 18 

First  Lessons  in  the  English  language 

(old), 20 

Elementary  Grammar  (old), 33 

Practical  English  Grammar  (old),      ...  65 

Copies  mailed,  postpaid,  on  receipt  of  price. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1868,  by 

WILSON,  HINKLE  &  CO.. 

In  the  Clerk's  office  of  the  District  Court  of  the  United  States,  for  the 
Southern  District  of  Ohio. 


Copyright,  1878,  by  VAN  ANTWERP,  BRAGG  <ft  CO. 
Copyright,  1896,  by  THOMAS  A.  HARVEY. 


HAR.   PRAC.   GR.   REV. 
E-P  137 


£lu.c7J- 


GIFT 


wo 

H34a 

PREFACE.  Lj^ieu 


This  treatise  is  a  revision  of  the  author's  Practical  Gram- 
mar, first  published  ten  years  ago.  In  the  work  of  revision, 
as  in  the  preparation  of  the  original  treatise,  the  ever-recur- 
ring wants  and  requirements  of  the  class-room  have  been 
kept  constantly  in  view.  Some  matter  of  minor  importance 
has  been  omitted  to  make  room  for  a  more  extended  as  well 
as  more  satisfactory  treatment  of  several  essential  subjects; 
a  few  definitions  have  been  modified,  and,  it  is  believed, 
improved  in  expression  and  accuracy;  the  number  of  tech- 
nical terms  to  be  used  in  parsing  and  analysis  has  been 
diminished;  but  the  distinguishing  features  of  the  treatise 
have  been  preserved, .  and  its  general  plan  has  not  been 
changed  in  any  important  particular.  Nothing  has  been 
omitted  tl*at,  in  the  judgment  of  the  author,  ought  to  be 
retained,  and  nothing  has  been  added  that  did  not  seem  to 
be  essential  to  completeness  or  desirable  as  an  aid  to  the 
student. 

Accuracy  and  facility  in  the  use  of  language,  both  spoken 
and  written,  are  the  chief  ends  to  be  secured  by  the  study 
of  grammar.  To  secure  these  ends,  a  thorough  acquaintance 
with  the  elements,  forms,  structure,  and  laws  of  our  mother 
tongue,  is  indispensable;  and  a  practical  knowledge  of  these 
can  be  acquired  only  by  patient,  persistent  exercise  in  the 
analysis  and  synthesis  of  syllables,  words,  and  sentences. 
The  plan  of  this  treatise  is  in  strict  accordance  with  this 
educational  doctrine.     The  author  has  endeavored  to  present 

994  (iii) 


iv  PREFACE. 

the  subject  in  a  simple,  concise,  and  perspicuous  manner, 
and  to  furnish  such  "models"  for  necessary  routine  work  as 
the  student  may  use  to  the  best  advantage.  He  would  call 
special  attention  to  these  "models,"  and  suggest  that  more 
attention  be  paid  to  those  relating  to  synthesis  than  most 
teachers  have  heretofore  thought  advisable.  He  has  pur- 
posely avoided  the  discussion  of  mere  theories;  preferring, 
rather,  a  plain,  didactic  statement  or  clear  indication  of  his 
own  views,  especially  on  those  points  that  annoy  and  perplex 
both  pupil  and  teacher.  Experience  has  taught  him  that 
such  discussions  serve  only  to  confuse  and  discourage  the 
beginner,  and  are  of  questionable  utility  to  the  advanced 
student.  Neither  the  erudition  of  the  teacher  nor  the  ex- 
haustive completeness  of  the  text-book  used,  can  compensate 
for  the  lack  of  intelligent,  systematic  drill  in  the  class-room. 

The  acknowledgments  of  the  author  are  due  for  many 
valuable  criticisms  and  suggestions,  received  from  a  large 
number  of  thoughtful,  earnest  teachers  and  superintendents. 
For  these  highly-esteemed  favors  he  tenders  his  grateful 
thanks.  His  correspondents  will  see  that  most  of  their 
advice   has   been   heeded. 

Actuated  by  a  desire  to  render  the  labor  of^the  class- 
room more  pleasant  and  effective,  by  furnishing  an  attractive 
means  for  instruction  in  a  useful  branch  of  study,  the  author 
ventures  the  hope  that  this  revision  will  commend  itself  to 
the  favorable  notice  and  consideration  of  his  fellow-teachers. 

% 

October,  1878. 


CONTENTS. 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

PAGE. 

definitions, 8 

Elementary  Sounds,    ....       8 

Vocals 9 

Subvocals  and  Aspirates, ...       9 

Diphthongs, 11 

Digraphs, 11 

Trigraphs,       .       .       ...       .       .11 

Double  Consonants.      ....     12 

Substitutes 12 

Forms  of  Letters,        ....      13 

Capital  Letters 14-17 

Italics, 19 

Small  Capitals,      ....        19, 20 

Syllables, 20 

Words,  Classes 22-24 


ETYMOLOGY. 

Parts  of  Speech,   ....        25-29 

The  Noun 29 

Classes 30 

Gender 31-33 

Person, 33 

Number, 34-36 

Csfte, 36-39 

Declension, 39 

Models  for  Parsing,      .       .        40,41 

The  Adjective 42 

Descriptive, 44 

Definitive, 45 

Articles 45 

Pronominals,  ....        45-48 

Numerals. 49 

Comparison 50,51 


PAGE. 

Models  for  Parsing,  .  .  52,53 
Cautions, 54,55 

The  Pronoun .56 

Personal, 58-60 

Models  for  Parsing,      .       .        61,62 

Possessive, 63 

Models  for  Parsing,  .  .  .  63 
Relative,  .  .  .  .  .  64-66 
Models  for  Parsing,      .       .        67,68 

Interrogative 69 

Models  for  Parsing,  ,  .  70 
Cautions 72,73 

The  Verb 73 

Classes 74-76 

Voice, 76,77 

The  Participle,       .       .       .        78-81 

Auxiliaries 82 

Mode, 83-87 

Tense 88-92 

Forms, 92,93 

Person  and  Number,  .  .  93,94 
Unipersonal  Verbs,  ...  94 
Conjugation,  ....  95-105 
Irregular  Verbs,  .  .  .  10C-109 
Defective   and  Redundant 

Verbs, 109.110 

Models  for  Parsing,  .  .  110-112 
Cautions, 113-115 

The  Adverb, 115 

Classes,      116-118 

Comparison, 118 

Models  for  Parsing,  .  .  119,120 
Cautions 120 

The  Preposition,     .       .       .       .121 

List, 122-124 

Models  for  Parsing,      .  .    125 

Caution, 120 

(V) 


vi 


CONTENTS. 


The  Conjunction, 


Models  for  Parsing, 
Cautions,    . 
The  Interjection,  . 
Model  for  Parsing, 


PAGE. 

.  127 
128,129 
.  130 
.  131 
.  132 
,  133 


SYNTAX. 

Oral  Lessons 136-142 

Definitions 143 

Sentences,    ......    144 

Classification,.       .       .       .     144-147 

Elements 148 

Principal  Elements.  .  .  148-150 
Arrangement,  .  .  .  151,152 
Subordinate  Elements,       .       .    153 

Objective 153-156 

Adjective 156-158 

Adverbial,         .       .       .     158-160 

Attendant 161 

Classes 161,162 

Models  for  Analysis,    ■       .     162-166 
Kinds  of  Elements,       ,       .       .168 

Simple, 168 

Complex, 169-173 

Compound,       ....     173,174 

Phrases  Classified,        .       .       .175 

Clauses  Classified,        .       ,     175-177 

Contracted  Sentences,       .       .    178 

Ellipsis 178-181 

Abridgment,  ....  181-184 
Directions  for  Analysis,  ,  184-187 
Rules  of  Syntax,  .  .  .  190-192 
Subject-Nominative,  .  .  .192 
Predicate  Nominative,  .  .  193 
Possessive  Case,    .      .      .      .194 

Apposition 195 

Nominative  Absolute  Case,  196,197 
Objective  Case,      ,      .      .    197-201 


PAGE. 

Pronouns,         •       »       t  201-206 

Adjectives 206,207 

Participles 206,207 

Verbs 208-212 

Infinitives 212-215 

Adverbs 215-217 

Prepositions,    ,       .       .  .   218 

Coordinate  Conjunctions,  ,       .    219 
Subordinate  Conjunctions,        .    220 

Interjections 221 

Words  Variously  Classified  221-228 

Figures  of  Language,  .  .   231 

Of  Etymology,        .       .  231,232 

Of  Syntax 232,233 

Of  Rhetoric 233-237 

Punctuation 237 

Comma,    .....     238-241 

Semicolon 242,243 

Colon 244 

Period, 245,246 

Interrogation  Point,     ...    246 
Exclamation  Point,      .       .       .247 

Dash, 247,248 

Curves, 248,249 

Brackets 250 

Other  Marks 250-252 


PKOSODY, 


Definitions,     . 
Poetic  Feet,    . 
Kinds  of  Verse,    . 
Poetic  Pauses, 
Iambic  Measures, 
Trochaic  Measures, 
Anapestic  Measures, 
Dactylic  Measures, 
Amphibrach  Measures, 
Mixed  Verse, 
Poetic  License,     . 
Scanning,       ,       , 


253,254 

254-256 

.    256 

.    257 

257-259 

259.260 

260,261 

.    261 

.    262 


263.264 


JOHN  S.  PRELL 

Civil  &  Mechanical  Engineer. 

SAN  FRANCISCO,  CAL. 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


1.  DEFINITIONS. 

1.  A  Word  is  the  sign  of  an  idea. 

2.  Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means 
of  words.     It  may  be  either  spoken  or  ivritten. 

Spoken  Language  is  the  expression  of  ideas  by  the  voice. 

Written  Language  is  the  expression  of  ideas  by  the  use  of 
written  or  printed  characters  representing  sounds. 

3.  Grammar  treats  of  the  principles  and  usages  of 
language. 

4.  English  Grammar  teaches  how  to  speak  and  write 
the  English  language  correctly. 

5.  English    Grammar    is    divided    into    four   parts : 
Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody. 

6.  Orthography  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  letters, 
syllables,  and  spelling. 

7.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation, 
and  properties  of  words. 

8.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

9.  Prosody   treats   of  the   quantity   of  syllables,   of 

accent,  and  of  the  laws  of  versification. 

(7) 


PART  I 


ORTHOGRAPHY. 

2.    DEFINITIONS. 

1.  Orthography  treats  of  elementary  sounds,  letters, 
syllables,  and  spelling. 

2.  An  Elementary  Sound  is  one  which  can  not  be 
separated  into  two  or  more  distinct  sounds. 

3.  A  Letter  is  a  character  used  to  represent  either 
an  elementary  sound  or  a  combination  of  elementary 
sounds;  as,  a,  x. 

Letters  are  divided  into  Vowels  and  Consonants.  Vowels  are 
used  to  represent  Vocals;  Consonants,  to  represent  Subvocals 
and  Aspirates. 

4.  A  Syllable  is  a  sound  or  a  combination  of  sounds 
uttered  with  one  impulse  of  the  voice,  and  may  be 
represented  by  a  letter  or  a  group  of  letters;  as,  man, 
man-ner,  man-u-mit. 

5.  A  Word  is  either  a  syllable  or  a  combination  of 
syllables;  as,  hat,  men-tion,  phi-los-o-phy. 

3.  ELEMENTARY   SOUNDS. 

1.  There  are  forty-two  elementary  sounds  in  the 
English  language. 

2.  They  are  divided  into  Vocals,  Subvocals,  and  As- 
pirates. 

(8) 


ORTHOGKAPHY. 


9 


3.  Vocals  are  those  sounds  which  are  made  with  the 
vocal  organs  open,  and  consist  of  pure  tone  only. 
They  are  also  called  Tonics, 

4.  Subvocals  are  those  sounds  which  are  obstructed 
by  the  vocal  organs,  in  the  process  of  articulation. 
They  are  sometimes  called  Subtonics. 

5.  Aspirates  are  mere  emissions  of  breath,  articu- 
lated by  the  lips,  tongue,  teeth,  and  palate.  They  are 
sometimes  called  Atonies, 

TABLE  OF  ELEMENTARY  SOUNDS. 


4.  VOCALS. 

a  long,    as  in 

late. 

I     long, 

is  in  time. 

a  short,      " 

hat. 

I     short', 

"      tin. 

a  middle,  " 

ask. 

o    long, 

"      cold. 

a  Italian,  " 

arm. 

6     short, 

"    hot. 

a  broad,     " 

all. 

oo  long, 

"      ooze. 

a"  double,    " 

care. 

oo  short, 

M      book. 

e  long,        " 

eve. 

u    long, 

"      lute. 

e  short,      " 

en. 

u    short, 

"      cup. 

e                 " 

err. 

5.   SUBVOCALS  A2TD   ASPIRATES. 

1.  Subvocals  and  Aspirates  may  be  divided  into  six 
classes,  viz.: 

Labials,  or  lip-sounds,  which  are  made  by  the  lips; 

Unguals,  or  tongue-sounds,  made  by  the  tongue; 

Linguo-dentals,  or  tongue-teeth-sounds,  made  by  the  tongue  and 
teeth , 

Linguo-nasals,  or  tongue-nose-sounds,  articulated  by  the  tongue, 
the  sound  passing  through  the  nose; 

Palato-nasals,  or  palate-nose-sounds,  made  by  the  palate,  the 
sound  passing  through  the  nose; 

Palatals,  or  palate-sounds,  made  by  the  palate. 


10  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

2.  The   Subvocals   are   arranged   on  the   left  of  the 
page,  and  the  corresponding  Aspirates  on  the  right. 


LABIALS. 


D,  as  in  bib. 

V,       "  save. 

W,      "  way. 

m,      "  am. 


p,  as  in  lip. 
f,  "  life. 
wh,    "       when. 


LINGUO-DENTALS. 


d,  as  in  lid. 

th,  u     thou. 

j,  "     jar. 

z,  "     size. 

z,  "      azure  (azl/ur). 


t,    as  in  tat. 
th,      "      thin. 
ch,      "      rich, 
s,        "      hiss. 
sh,      "      hush. 


LINGUALS. 

I,  as  in  lull.  i 

,,  (Have  no  corresponding  aspirates.) 

r,       "      roar. 

LINGUO-NASAL. 
n,  as  in  man.  |        ( Has  no  coiTesponding  aspirate.)     % 

PALATO-NASAL. 
ng,   as   in  song.  |         (Has  no  corresponding  aspirate.) 

PALATALS. 


g,  as  in  nag. 

y,     u     yes. 


k,  as  in  kick. 

(Has  no  corresponding  aspirate.? 

h,       "      how. 


Rem. — The  sounds  represented  by  I,  m,  n,  and  r,  are  some- 
times called  liquids,  because  they  easily  unite  with  other  sub- 
vocals  or  aspirates. 


ORTHOGBAPHY.  H 


6.  LETTERS. 


There  are  twenty-six  letters  in  the  English  alpha- 
bet. As  there  are  more  elementary  sounds  than  letters, 
it  becomes  necessary  that  some  letters  represent  more 
than  one  sound.  Letters  also  combine  to  represent 
sounds  for  which  there  are  no  single  representatives, 
and  the  same  sound  is  frequently  common  to  a  number 
of  letters.  Letters  and  combinations  of  letters  are 
often  used  as  substitutes  for  other  letters. 


7.  DIPHTHONGS,  DIGRAPHS,  AND  TRIGRAPHS. 

1.  A  Diphthong  consists  of  two  vocals  sounded  to- 
gether in  the  same  syllable. 

Rem. — Thero  are  two  diphthongal  sounds,  represented  by 
four  diphthongs,  viz. :  ou,  ow,  oi,  oy,  as  in  foul,  now,  boil,  cloy. 

2.  A  Digraph  consists  of  two  vowels  written  together 
in  the  same  syllable,  one  only  being  pronounced,  or 
both  representing  a  single  elementary  sound. 

Rem. — There  are  twenty-five  digraphs,  viz.:  act,  Canaan;  ae, 
Gaelic;  ai,  gain;  ao}  gaol;  au,  maul;  aw,  maw;  ay,  may;  ea, 
meat;  ee,  need;  ei,  ceiling;  eo,  people;  eu,  feud;  ew,  new;  ey, 
they;  ie,  lief;  oa,  coat;  oe,  foe;  oi,  avoirdupois;  oo,  moon;  ow, 
tour;  ow,  flow;  ua,  guard;  ue,  sue;  ui,  guise;  uy,  buy. 

3.  A  Trigraph  consists  of  three  vowels  written  to- 
gether in  the  same  syllable,  one  only  being  pronounced, 
or  the  three  together  representing  a  single  vocal  sound, 
or  diphthong. 

Rem.  I.  —  There  are  eight  trigraphs,  viz.:  aye,  aye;  aw. 
awe;  eau,  beau,  beauty;  eou,  gorgeous;  eye,  eye;  ieu%  lieu;  lew, 
view;  owe,  owe. 


12  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 

Rem.  2. — In  such  words  as  Christian,  alien,  union,  i  does  not 
form  a  digraph  with  the  following  vowel,  but  is  a  substitute 
for  y.  In  the  unaccented  terminations  cean,  cial,  sion,  Hon,  the 
combinations  ce,  ci,  si,  ti,  are  substitutes  for  sh. 

Rem.  3. — In  such  words  as  herbaceous,  gracious,  precious,  e  and 
i  do  not  form  trigraphs  with  the  following  vowels,  but  the 
combinations  ce,  ci  are  substitutes  for  sh. 


8.  DOUBLE  CONSONANTS. 

Double  Consonants  consist  of  two  consonants  written 
together  in  the  same  syllable,  representing  a  single  ele- 
mentary sound. 

Rem. — They  are  ch,  chaise,  chord;  gh,  laugh;  ph,  physic;  sh, 
hush;  th,  thin,  thine;  wh,  when;  ng,  sing. 

9.  SUBSTITUTES. 

A  Substitute  represents  a  sound  usually  represented 
by  another  letter  or  combination  of  letters. 

A  long  has  four  substitutes:  t,  tete;  ei,  feint;  ey,  they;  ao, 
gaol. 

A  as  in  air  has  two  substitutes :  e,  there ;  ei,  heir. 

A  broad  has  two  substitutes :  o,  cord ;  ou,  sought. 

E  long  has  three  substitutes:  i,  marine;  ie,  fiend;  ay,  quay. 

E  short  has  three  substitutes:   ay,  says;  u,  bury;  ie,  friend. 

E  as  in  err  has  three  substitutes:  i,  sir;  y,  myrrh;  o,  work. 

I  long  has  three  substitutes :  y,  thyme ;  ei,  Steinway ;  oi,  choir, 

I  short  has  six  substitutes:  y,  hymn;  e,  England;  u,  busy;  o, 
women ;  ee,  been ;  ai,  captain. 

0  long  has  three  substitutes :  eau,  beau ;  ew,  sew ;  oa,  goal. 

0  short  has  two  substitutes:  a,  what;  ow,  knowledge. 

U  long  has  five  substitutes:  eau,  beauty;  ieu,  lieu;  iew,  view; 
ew,  new;  ui,  suit. 

U   short  has  one  substitute :  o,  son. 


ORTHOGKAPHY.  13 

F  has  two  substitutes :  gh,  laugh ;  ph,  philosophy. 

J  has  two  substitutes:  g,  rage;  di,  soldier. 

K  has  four  substitutes:  c,  can;  ch,  chord;  gh,  lough;  qu,  pique. 

S  has  two  substitutes :  c  before  e,  i,  and  y ;  z,  quartz. 

T  has  one  substitute ;     ed  final,  after  any  aspirate  except  t. 

V  has  two  substitutes :  /,  of;  ph,  Stephen. 

W  has  one  substitute :  u,  quick.  It  is  understood  before  o 
in  one,  once. 

X  is  used  as  a  substitute  for  Jcs,  as  in  wax ;  gz,  as  in  exact', 
ksh,  as  in  noxious. 

Y  has  one  substitute :  i,  alien.  It  is  frequently  understood 
before  u,  as  in  verdure. 

Z  has  three  substitutes:  c,  sacrifice;  s  his;  x,  Xenia. 

CH  has  one  substitute:  ti,  question. 

SH  has  six  substitutes:  ce,  ocean;  ci,  facial;  si,  losion;  ft", 
motion;  ch,  chaise;  s,  sugar. 

ZH  has  four  substitutes:  si,  fusion;  zi,  brazier;  z,  azure;  st 
rasure. 

NG  has  one  substitute:  n,  generally  before  palatal  sounds; 
as  in  ink,  uncle,  conquer. 

10.  FORMS  OF  THE  LETTERS. 

1.  Letters  are  of  different  styles;  as,  Roman,  Italic, 

<&iu^  <&ia  ISttgitsf), 

2.  Types  for  printing  are  of  various  sizes : 

Great  Primer,     "^      ^ 

English  Long  Primer,  * 

JLngllbll,  Bourgeois, 

rica,  Brevier, 


3.   Letters   are   used    either   as   capital   letters   or   aa 
small  letters. 

Rem. — Printers  call  small  letters  lower  case. 


14  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 


11.  CAPITAL  LETTERS, 

I.  The  first  word  of  every  sentence,  or  the  first  word 
after  a  full  pause,  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex. — Winds  blow.     Snow  falls.    The.,  heavens  are  aflame. 

II.  The  first  word  after  an  introductory  word  01 
clause  may  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex. — "Resolved,  That  the  sum  of  three  thousand  dollars  be  appro- 
priated," etc. 

"Be  it  enacted  by  the  General  Assembly  of  the  State  of  Ohio,  That 
section  fourteen,"  etc. 

III.  Each  item  of  an  enumeration  of  particulars, 
arranged  in  paragraphs,  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter. 

Ex. — "These  expenditures  are  in  proportion  to  the  whole  ex- 
penditures of  government: 

In  Austria,  as  thirty-three  per  cent; 
In  France,  as  thirty -eight  per  cent; 
In  Great  Britain,  as  seventy-four  per  cent." 

IV.  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  or  of  an 
important  statement,  a  distinct  speech,  etc.,  should  be- 
gin with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex. — "When  thou  saidst,  Seek  ye  my  face;  my  heart  said  unto 
thee,  Thy  face,  Lord,  will  I  seek."  "  Dora  said,  '  My  uncle  took 
the  boy.'"     "One  truth  is  clear:  Whatever  is,  is  right." 

V.  The  first  word  in  every  line  of  poetry  should 
begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex. — "  Put  your  best  foot  foremost,  or  I  fear 

That  we  shall  miss  the  mail:   and  here  it  comes 
With  five  at  top;  as  quaint  a  four  in  hand 
As  you  shall  see — three  piebalds  and  a  roan." 


ORTHOGKAPHY.  15 

Rem. — In  humorous  poetry,  when  a  word  is  divided  at  the 
end  of  a  line,  the  first  letter  of  the  next  line  may  be  a  capital 
or  a  small  letter. 

Ex. — "Faith,  he's  got  the  Knicker- 
Bocker  Magazine." 

"  Here  doomed  to  starve  on  water  gru- 
el, never  shall  I  see  the  U- 
niversity  of  Gottingen." 

VI.  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  months,  days, 
etc.,  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — James,  Emma,  Boston,  July,  Wednesday,  James  Monroe, 
O.  W.  Holmes. 

VII.  Titles  of  honor  or  distinction,  used  alone  or  ac- 
companied by  nouns,  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex.— Earl  Russell ;  the  Duke  of  York ;  Mr.  Wilson ;  Mrs.  Smith ; 
Dr.  Johnson;  Gen.  Harrison;  Sir  Robert  Peel;  George  the  Third; 
Charles  the  Bold;  "O  had  I  a  thousand  a  year,  Gaffer  Green;" 
"The  Elder  spake  as  follows." 

VIII.  Names  of  things  personified  should  usually 
begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — "Come,  gentle  Spring/  ethereal  Mildness/  come.'* 

"In  Misery's  darkest  cavern  known, 
His  useful  care  was  nigh, 
When  hopeless  Anguish  poured  his  groan, 
And  lonely  Want  retired  to  die." 

IX.  Words  or  phrases  used  as  names  for  particular 
objects,  should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex.— The  Falls;  Yellow  Creek;  the  Havana;  the  City  of  Broth- 
erly Love;  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope;  John  o'  Groat's  House;  the 
Round  Tower;  the  Sailor's  Home*  "I  have  read  'The  Tent  on  the 
Beach.'" 


16  ENGLISH  GKAMMAE. 

X.  All  appellations  of  the  Deity  should  begin  with- 
capital  letters. 

Ex. — God  ;  the  Most  High  ;  the  Supreme ;  the  Infinite  One ; 
Divine  Providence ;  the  Father,  the  Son,  and  the  Holy  Ghost ; 
our   Lord  Jesus   Christ. 

Rem.  I. — A  word  referring  to  the. Deity,  but  not  used  as  an 
appellation,  should  sometimes  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Ex. — "  The  Hand  that  made  us  is  divine." 

"The  spangled  heavens,  a  shining  frame, 
Their  great  Original  proclaim." 

Rem.  2.— A  pronoun,  whose  expressed  antecedent  is  the 
name  of  the  Deity,  usually  requires  no  capitals;  as,  "0  thou 
merciful  God  !  "     "  God  provides  for  all  his  creatures." 

Rem.  3. — The  pronouns  he,  his,  him,  thy,  and  thee,  referring 
to  names  of  the  Deity,  in  sentences  where  their  antecedents 
are  understood,  may  sometimes  begin  with  capital  letters;  as, 
"The  hope  of  my  spirit  turns  trembling  to  Thee;"  "Trust  in 
Him,  for  He  will  sustain  thee." 

XI.  Nouns  denoting  the  race  or  nation  of  individ- 
uals should  begin  with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — The  French ;  the  Spaniards ;  the  English ;  the  Anglo-Saxons. 

XII.  Words  derived  from  proper  names  should  be- 
gin with  capital  letters. 

Ex. — American,  Mainote,  Danish,  Johnsonian,  Icelandic. 

Rem. — When  such  words  become  common  nouns  by  losing 
their  reference  to  their  original  proper  nouns,  they  should 
not  begin  with  capital  letters;  as,  a  louis  d'or;  a  guinea; 
china-ware. 

XIII.  Words  of  special  importance  may  begin  with 
capital  letters. 

Ex. — The  Tariff;  the  Sub-Treasury  Bill;  the  Commissioner  of 
Common  Schools ;  "  Be  prepared  for  the  Great  Day ; "  "  Angler's 
Companion:  a  Complete  and  Superior  Treatise  on  the  art  of  An- 
gling." 


OBTHOGRAPHY.  17 

XIV.  In  natural  history,  generic  names,  or  names  of 
genera,  should  commence  with  capital  letters.  Specific 
names,  or  names  of  species,  if  derived  from  proper 
nouns,  should  also  commence  with  capitals;  otherwise, 
with  small  letters.  Scientific  terms  are  usually  printed 
in  italics.  * 

Ex. — .Rosa  Gallica,  Rosa  alba;  Anomma  Burmeisteri,  Anomma  rubella; 
Spongites  Townsendi,  Spongites  Jlexuosus. 

XV.  The  pronoun  I  and  the  interjection  O  should 
be  capitals. 

Ex.—  "Sleep,  O  gentle  Sleep, 

^Nature's  soft  nurse,  how  have  I  frighted  thee." 


GENERAL    REMARKS. 

1.  Indirect  quotations,  or  words  quoted  as  the  peculiar  lan- 
guage of  authors,  should  not  begin  with  capital  letters;  as,  "A 
man  is  an  '  individual,'  or  a  '  person,'  or  a  '  party.' "  "A  fine 
house  is  always  a  'palatial  residence.'" 

2.  In  writing  many  compound  names  of  places,  usage  is  not 
uniform.  When  the  parts  remain  separate,  or  are  connected 
by  a  hyphen,  each  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter:  when 
the  parts  are  consolidated,  but  one  capital  letter  should  be 
used;  as,  New  Castle,  New-Castle,  Newcastle. 

3.  In  phrases  or  sentences  used  as  headings  or  titles,  nouns, 
adjectives,  participles,  or  other  important  words,  only,  should 
begin  with  capital  letters :  unimportant  words  and  connectives 
should  begin  with  small  letters. 

4.  In  advertisements,  show-bills,  etc.,  different  styles  and 
sizes  of  type  are  used,  and  quite  frequently  the  rules  for  the 
use  of  capitals  are  not  observed. 

5.  Names,  signs,  titles,  and  mottoes,  designed  to  attract 
attention,  are  printed  in  various  styles:  most  frequently  in 
capitals. 

h.  a— 2. 


18  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


12.  EXERCISES  TO  BE  CORRECTED. 

1. — it  is  a  pleasant  thing  to  see  the  sun.  man  is  mortal, 
flowers  bloom  in  summer. 

2. — Resolved,  that  the  framers  of  the  constitution,  etc. 

3. — The  town  has  expended,  the  past  year: 

for  grading  streets,  $15,000. 

for  public  buildings,  15,000. 

4. — He  said  "you  are  too  impulsive;"  Remember  the  maxim, 
"  a  penny  saved  is  a  penny  earned." 

5. — "  The  day  is  past  and  gone ; 

the  evening  shades  appear; 
O  may  we  all  remember  well 
the  night  of  death  draws  near." 

6. — James  and  samuel  went  to  baltimore  last  august;  The 
general  assembly  meets  on  the  first  monday  in  february. 

7 — The  bill  was  vetoed  by  the  president;  John  Jones, 
esq.;  Richard  the  third;  "The  opposition  was  led  by  lord 
Brougham." 

8.— "When  music,  heavenly  maid,  was  young, 
While  yet,  in  early  Greece,  she  sung, 
The'  passions,  oft,  to  hear  her  shell, 
Throng'd  around  her  magic  cell." 

9. — The  central  park;  the  Ohio  river;  I  have  read  "great 
expectations ; "  the  atlas  mountains  are  in  Africa. 

10. — The  lord  shall  endure  forever;  Remember  thy  creator; 
divine  love  and  wisdom;   "The  ways  of  providence." 

11. — " I  know  that  my  redeemer  liveth ;  "  "I  am  the  way, 
the  truth,  and  the  life;"  "The  word  was  made  flesh." 

12. — Those  are  chinamen;  the  turcomans  are  a  wandering 
race;  the  gypsies  of  Spain;  the  indians  are  fast  disappearing. 

13. — The  amiss  family  Robinson;  a  russian  serf;  "The  rank 
is  but  the  Guinea's  stamp;"  a  ,£asfawflre  shawl ;  m  l)amask 
rose. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  19 

14. — The  emancipation  proclamation;  the  art  of  cookery,  (a 
title);  the  Missouri  compromise;  the  whisky  insurrection;  "A 
treatise  on  the  science  of  education  and  the  art  of  teaching." 

15. — i  don't  like  to  study  grammar,  i  write  correctly  enough, 
now.     o,  how  i  wish  school  was  out. 


13.  ITALICS,  SMALL   CAPITALS,  ETC. 

I.  Emphatic    words,    phrases,    and    clauses    are    fre- 
quently printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — n  Do  not  you  grieve  at  this  ? "    "  The  truth  is,  his  lordship 
weeps  for  the  press,  and  wipes  his  eyes  with  the  public." — Curran. 

II.  Words  borrowed  from  foreign  languages  should 
be  printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — u  Each  word  stood   quite  per  se." — Lamb.       This  odd  quid 
pro  quo  surprised  me  into  vehement  laughter." — Walpole. 

III.  The    names    of  authors,   annexed    to    selections 
from  their  writings,  are  usually  printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — "His  coward  lips  did  from  their  color  fly." — Shakespeare. 

IV.  Parenthetical  words  and  phrases  are  frequently 
printed  in  italics. 

Ex. — Old  gentleman  {looking  quite  unconcerned),  "Run  away,  has 
she?" 

V.  Names  of  ships,  books,  newspapers,  and  periodi- 
cals are  frequently  printed  in  italics   or  small  capitals. 

Ex. — "The   Quaker  City  has   arrived."    "The   Joubnal  is  com- 
mitted to  no  such  policy  as  that." 

VI.  Names  of  important   personages   are   frequently 
.printed  in  small  capitals. 


20  ENGLISH  GEAMMAK. 

VII.  Words  requiring  special  emphasis  are  frequently 
printed  in  small  capitals  or  capitals. 

Ex. — "  I  brand  him  as  a  rogue,  a  thief,  a  CO WAED."— Placard. 

Rem.  I. — Italicized  words  in  the  Bible  are  those  supplied  by- 
translators  to  explain  the  original. 

Rem.  2. — In  manuscripts,  one  line  drawn  under  a  word  indi 
cates  italics;  two  lines,  small  capitals;  three  lines,  CAPITALS. 


Rem.  3. — In  this  work,  full-faced  types  are  also  used  for 
distinction. 

14.   SYLLABLES. 
1.  A  Syllable  may  be  composed: 

1.  Of  a  vowel,  diphthong,  digraph,  or  trigraph;   as,  o-men, 
ow-ranography,  eaw-de-cologne. 

2.  Of  a  vowel  or  diphthong,  with  one  or  more  consonants 
prefixed  or  affixed;  as,  l-o,  h-oy,  a-m,  a-nd. 

3.  Of  a  vowel  or  diphthong,  with  one  or  more  consonants 
prefixed  and  affixed;  as,  b-ard,  fr-a,-nJc. 

2.  A  vocal  sound  is  an  essential  part  of  a  syllable. 

3.  Synthesis  is  the  process  of  combining  elementary 
sounds. 

4.  Analysis  is  the  process  of  separating  a  syllable  or 
word  into  its  elementary  sounds. 

15.  MODELS  FOR  ANALYZING  SYLLABLES. 

MODEL  I. 

Lo. — Give  both  sounds  in  quick  succession,  L-o,  and  pronounce  the 
word. 

MODEL  II. 

Lo    .  .  is  a  syllable,  containing  two  elementary  sounds. 
L  ...  is  a  consonant-subvocal-lingual.     (Give  its  sound.) 
O  ...  is  a  vowel-vocal,  long  sound.     (Give  its  sound.) 


OETHOGKAPHY.  21 

MODEL    III. 

Clank. — Give  the  five  sounds  in  quick  succession,  c-I-a-n-k,   and 
pronounce  the  word. 

MODEL  IV. 

Clank   is  a  syllable,  containing  five  elementary  sounds. 

C  ...  is   a  consonant-aspirate-palatal,  substitute   for  h.    {Give  its 

sound.) 
I    ...  is  a  consonant-subvocal-lingual.     (Give  its  sound.) 
a  ...  is  a  vowel -vocal,  short  sound.     (Give  its  sound.) 
n  ...  is    a    consonant -subvocal- palatal -nasal,    substitute    for    ng^ 

(Give  its  sound.) 
k  •  t  t  is  a  consonant-aspirate-palatal.     (Give  its  sound,) 

MODEL  V. 

Boy. — Give  the  three  sounds  in  quick  succession,  b-a-i,  and  pro- 
nounce the  word. 

MODEL  VI. 

Boy.  .  is  a  syllable,  containing  three  elementary  sounds. 
B  ...  is  a  consonant-subvocal-labial.     (Give  its  sound.) 
oy.  .  .  is   a  diphthong,   representing  a   broad,   and  i   short.     (Give 
the  sound  of  each  in  quick  succession. 

MODEL  VII. 

View. — Give  the  two  sounds  in  quick  succession,  v-U,  and  pronounce 
the  word. 

,MODEL   VIII. 

View  .  is  a  syllable,  containing  two  elementary  sounds. 
V  ...  is  a  consonant-subvocal-labial.  (Give  its  sound.) 
iew  .  .  is  a  trigraph,  equivalent  to  u  long.     (Give  its  sound.) 

Note. — Either  set  of  models  may  be  used  in  analyzing  syllables. 
The  models  for  complete  analysis  need  not  be  used  after  the  class- 
ification of  elementary  sounds  shall  have  been  thoroughly  learned. 

Analyze  the  following  words,  omitting  all  silent  letters: 

And,  fly,  warm,  elm,  fin,  sing,  wax,  when,  sue,  light,  pot, 
home,  zinc,  valve,  kid,  ask,  sun,  goat,  jolt. 


22  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

Form  syllables  by  prefixing  a  consonant  to  a,  ay,  eau,  oy; 
By  prefixing  two  or  more  consonants  to  e,  oo,  aw,  i ; 

By  affixing  one,  two,  or  more  consonants  to  any  of  the  vowels  (h 
diphthongs. 

16.  WORDS. 

1.  A  Word  may  consist  of  one  or  more  syllables. 
A  word  of  one  syllable  is  called  a  monosyllable;  as,  care,  man 
A  word  of  two  syllables  is  called  a  dissyllable;  as,  care-ful, 

man-ly. 

A  word  of  three  syllables  is  called  a  trisyllable;  as,  care-ful 
ness,  man-li-ness. 

A  word  of  four  or  more  syllables  is  called  a  polysyllable;  as, 
com-mu-wi-ty,  ec-cen-tric-i-ty. 

2.  Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  placed  upon  a  particular 
syllable.  It  may  be  either  primary  or  secondary,  the 
primary  being  the  more  forcible. 

3.  Every  word  of  more  than  one  syllable  has  one  of 
its  syllables  accented. 

4.  In  words  having  both  a  primary  and  a  secondary 
accent,  the  secondary  occurs  nearest  the  beginning ;  as, 
in" compatibility,   in" comprehen' sible. 

Rem. — Some  polysyllables  have  two  subordinate  accents; 
as,  con'"  stituf'tionaVity,  incom"/prehen"sibil/ity. 

17.  MODELS  FOR  ANALYZING  WORDS. 

Tree is  a  word  of  one  syllable:  therefore  a  monosyllable. 

Nature  ....  is  a  word  of  two  syllables:  therefore  a  dissyllable.  It  i3 
accented  on  the  first  syllable. 

Commotion  .  is  a  word  of  three  syllables:  therefore  a  trisyllable.  It 
is  accented  on  the  second  syllable. 

Indefatiaable  is  a  word  of  six  syllables:  therefore  a  polysyllable.  Its 
secondary  accent  is  on  the  first  syllable,  and  its  pri- 
mary accent  on  the  third. 


OKTHOGKAPHY.  23 

Note. — A  word  having  been  analyzed  according  to  one  of  these 
models,  analyze  each  syllable  according  to  the  preceding  models. 
In  separating  a  word  into  syllables,  divide  it  as  it  is  pronounced. 
In  writing,  never  divide  a  syllable  at  the  end  of  a  line.  Each  line 
should  end  with  a  word  or  an  entire  syllable. 

Analyze  the  following  words : 

Sand,  lead,  sack;  unction,  famous,  greatly;  endeavor,  infa- 
mous, candidly;  unpopular,  information,  gratuitous;  domestica- 
tion, interrogation,  incredulity;  incomprehensible,  indefensible* 
ness;  incompatibility,  incompassionately. 

Write  each  of  these  words  on  your  slates,  and  divide  them  into 
syllables,  marking  the  accented  syllables. 

Correct  the  accent  in  the  following  words : 

Advertisement,  primary,  contrary,  legislature,  lament- 
able, secondary,  infa'mous,  armistice,  admirable,  interesting. 

Change  the  accent  of  the  following  words  to  the  second  syllable,  and 
give  the  meaning  of  each  word  before  and  after  the  change : 

Insult,  ferment,  reb'el,  rec'ord,  prelude,  conjure,  en- 
trance, es/cort,  in'crease,  invalid,  ob'ject,  intense,  es'say. 


18.  CLASSES. 

1.  Words  are  either  Primitive  or  Derivative. 

2.  A  Primitive  or  Radical  word  is  one  in  no  way 
derived  from  another  in  the  same  language;  as,  mind, 
faith. 

3  A  Derivative  word  is  one  formed  by  joining  to  a 
primitive  some  letter  or  syllable  to  modify  its  meaning; 
as,  re-mind,  fait\i-ful. 

4.  A  Compound  word  is  one  formed  by  uniting  two 
or  more  primitive  or  derivative  words;  as,  man-worship, 
Anglo-Saxon. 


24  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

5.  A  Prefix  is  that  part  of  a  derivative  word  which 
is  placed  before  the  radical;  as,  re-call,  sw6-join. 

6.  A  Suffix  is  that  part  of  a  derivative  word  which 
is  placed  after  the  radical ;  as,  fedth-ful,  change-aWe. 

7.  Prefixes  and  suffixes  are  called  Affixes. 

Note.— The  meaning  and  use  of  affixes  should  be  learned  from 
some  work  prepared  for  that  purpose.  —  See  DeWolfs  Instructive 
Speller  and  Hand-Book  of  Derivative  Words,  and  Harvey's  Graded 
School  Speller. 


PART    II 


ETYMOLOGY. 


19.    PARTS    OF    SPEECH. 

1.  Etymology  treats  of  the  classification,  derivation, 
and  properties  of  words. 

2.  With  reference  to  meaning  and  use,  words  are 
divided  into  nine  classes,  called  Parts  of  Speech. 

In  the  sentence,  "  The  man  gave  the  boy  a  book,  a  sled, 
and  a  knife,"  the  words  man,  boy,  book,  sled,  and  knife  are 
names  of  objects.  They  are  called  Nouns,  which  means  names. 
All  words  used  as  the  names  of  objects  are  Nouns. 

3.  A  Noun  is  a  name ;  as,  bird,  Mary,  light. 

Point  out  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  horses  are  in  the  pasture.  2.  A  needle  has  a  sharp 
point.  3.  The  clouds  rested  on  the  summit  of  the  mountain. 
4.  The  boys  got  into  the  boat,  and  rowed  into  the  middle  of 
the  stream.  5.  The  king  was  overtaken  by  a  shower  a  short 
distance  from  the  avenue  that  surrounded  the  city.  6.  Henry 
and  Oliver  are  living  with  Mr.  Fields,  their  uncle.  7.  Cease 
from  anger,  and  forsake  wrath. 

In  the  sentence,  "  There  are  two  sweet  apples  on  that 
plate,"  sweet  denotes  that  the  apples  possess  a  certain  quality, 
that  of  being  sweet;  two  denotes  the  number  of  apples;  and 
that  is  used  to  designate,  or  point  out,  the  plate  on  which  the 
apples  are.  These  words  are  called  Adjectives,  and  they  are 
said  to  describe  or  define  the  nouns  which  follow  them. 

(25) 


26  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

4.  An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  describe  or  define 
a  noun;  as,  small  birds,  four  boys,  that  fox. 

Point  out  the  nouns  and  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  A  poor  cripple  lives  in  that  cottage.  2.  Those  pupils  are 
very  studious.  3.  Each  soldier  drew  his  battle  blade.  4.  Furi- 
ous storms  sweep  over  these  lovely  isles.  5.  Seven  vessels 
were  wrecked  in  the  late  storm.  6.  There  are  twenty  dimes 
in  two  dollars.     7.  The  dry,  hot  air  was  still  and  oppressive. 

In  the  sentence,  "  I  gave  him  my  book,  and  he  studied  his 
lesson,"  I  and  my  are  used  instead  of  the  name  of  the  person 
speaking,  and  him,  his,  and  he,  instead  of  the  name  of  the  one 
to  whom  the  book  was  given.  In  the  sentence,  "  Who  has 
the  book  which  you  were  reading?"  who  is  used  instead  of 
the  name  of  the  person  inquired  for;  which,  instead  of  the 
word  book ;  and  you,  instead  of  the  name  of  the  person  ad- 
dressed. Each  of  these  words  is  called  a  Pronoun,  which 
means  instead  of  a  noun. 

5.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun;  as, 
"He  is  my  uncle,"  "  Who  came  with  you  f  " 

Point  out  the  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  I  do  not  know  where  you  live.  2.  Who  gave  her  that 
pencil?  3.  She  came  from  home  an  hour  ago.  4.  What  have 
you  there,  my  son?  5.  Their  house  is  much  larger  than  our 
uncle's.  6.  Your  father  is  her  mother's  brother.  7.  Whose 
farm  is  for  sale  in  your  neighborhood? 

In  the  sentence,  "  Horses  run,"  run  expresses  action :  in  the 
sentence,  "  I  am,"  am  expresses  being :  in  the  sentence,  "  The 
boy  sleeps,"  sleeps  expresses  state  or  condition.  These  words 
are  used  to  affirm  action,  being,  or  state  of  their  subjects. 
They  are  called  Verbs.  Verbs  may  also  express  action,  being, 
or  state  without  affirming  it;  as,  to  run,  to  be,  to  sleep. 

6.  A  Verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  action,  being, 
or  state ;  as,  Mary  plays,  I  am,  the  house  stands. 


ETYMOLOGY.  27 

Point  out  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  The  farmer  plows  in  the  spring  and  fall.  2.  Their  father 
gave  them  money.  3.  The  great  tears  sprang  to  their  eyes, 
4.  They  followed  the  cattle  home.  5.  The  landlord  answered 
his  question.  6.  He  ordered  him  to  go.  7.  The  pupils  who 
had  passed  a  good  examination,  went  home  with  joyful  hearts. 

In  the  sentence,  "I  saw  a  boy  writing  with  a  pencil,"  writ- 
ing denotes  what  the  boy  was  doing,  but  it  does  not  affirm 
any  thing  of  the  boy.  It  modifies  boy,  like  an  adjective.  In 
the  sentence,  "  I  saw  a  letter,  written  by  a  boy,"  written  is  used 
as  a  modifier  of  letter.  Both  of  these  words  are  derived  from 
the  verb  to  write,  and  each  of  them  modifies  a  noun.  They 
partake,  therefore,  of  the  properties  of  the  verb  and  the  ad- 
jective; i.  e.,  they  express  action,  and  they  modify  nouns. 
Such  words  are  called  Participles,  which  means  partaking  of. 
Some  participles  partake  of  the  properties  of  the  verb  and 
the  noun. 

7.  A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and 
partakes  of  the  properties  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjec- 
tive or  a  noun;  as,  "I  saw  a  bird  flying;"  "A  letter, 
written  in  haste." 

Point  out  the  participles  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  A  light  was  seen,  shining  from  afar.  2.  He  sent  me  a 
shell,  picked  up  on  the  sea-shore.  3.  A  deer  was  killed  by  a 
man,  running  at  full  speed.  4.  The  house  struck  by  lightning 
belonged  to  Mr.  Ellis.  5.  The  letter,  folded  neatly,  was  put 
into  an  envelope.  6.  My  photograph,  taken  twenty  years  ago, 
has  been  lost.  7.  The  enemy,  driven  from  the  field,  rallied 
at  the  fort. 

In  the  sentence,  "  The  man  then  drove  very  rapidly  over 
the  bridge,"  then  and  rapidly  modify  drove — then  denoting  the 
time,  and  rapidly  the  manner  of  driving.  Very  modifies  rapidly 
by  denoting  the  degree  of  rapidity  with  which  the  man  drove. 
These  words,  and  all  words  used  in  a  similar  manner,  are 
called  Adverbs.  Adverbs  may  also  modify  adjectives  and  par- 
ticiples. 


28  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

8.  An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  a  participle,  or  an  adverb ;  as,  "  He  runs 
swiftly;"  "You  are  very  kind;"  "The  letter  was 
written  hastily."     "He  came  too  slowly." 

■  Point  out  the  adverbs,  verbs,  and  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  He  who  gives  cheerfully  gives  twice.  2.  His  affairs  were 
managed  imprudently.  3.  Proceed  slowly  and  cautiously. 
4.  We  shall  never  see  his  like  again.  5.  You  have  not  acted 
wisely.  6.  We  must  study  diligently.  7.  Our  dinner,  cooked 
hastily,  was  eaten  greedily. 

In  the  sentence,  "Vessels  sail  on  the  ocean,"  the  group  of 
words,  on  the  ocean,  modifies  sail  by  telling  where  the  vessels 
sail.  The  word  on  connects  ocean  and  sail,  and  is  said  to  show 
the  relation  between  them.  In  the  sentence,  "  We  reached 
the  summit  of  the  mountain,"  of  shows  the  relation  between 
mountain  and  summit.  Words  used  in  this  manner  are  called 
Prepositions.  Ocean  is  called  the  object  of  on;  mountain,  the 
object  of  of 

9.  A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation 
between  its  object  and  some  other  word;  as,  "He  came 
from  Troy." 

Point  out  the  prepositions  in  these  sentences: 

1.  The  boy  fell  over  a  chair  into  a  tub  of  water.  2.  I  came 
from  Boston  to  Cincinnati  in  1875.  3.  We  rested  by  the  road- 
side. 4.  He  walked  up  the  valley  towards  the  house  of  his 
friend.  5.  Walk  with  me  in  the  garden.  6.  I  went  to  the 
doctor  for  advice,  but  he  was  not  at  home. 


In  the  sentence,  "  John  and  Henry  study  algebra,"  and 
joins,  or  connects,  the  two  nouns  John  and  Henri/.  In  the 
sentence,  "  I  will  go,  if  you  will  stay,"  if  connects  the  two  sen- 
tences, I  will  go  and  you  will  stay.  Words  used  in  this  manner 
are  called  Conjunctions.  They  may  connect  words,  groups  of 
words,  or  sentences. 


ETYMOLOGY.  29 

10.  A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words, 
sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences ;  as,  "  John  and  Elisha 
are  brothers j n  "I  must  go,  but  you  may  stay." 

Point  out  the  conjunctions  and  prepositions  in  these  sentences : 

1.  He  is  wise  and  prudent.  2.  James  or  John  will  call 
upon  you.  3.  I  study  because  I  wish  to  learn.  4.  Neither 
Jane  nor  Sarah  was  in  the  room.  5.  I  shall  not  go,  if  it 
rain.  6.  He  is  rich,  but  is  very  unhappy.  7.  Worship  the 
Lord,  for  he  is  our  God. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Oh,  how  tired  I  am ! "  the  word  oh  de- 
notes feeling  or  emotion.  It  is  not  used  in  the  statement  of 
a  fact,  or  in  asking  a  question.  Many  words  denoting  grief, 
joy,  pity,  pain,  etc.,  are  used  in  a  similar  manner.  They  are 
called  Interjections. 

11.  An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  to  denote  feeling 
or  emotion ;  as,  A h,  alas,  pshaw. 

Point  out  the  interjections  in  the  following  exercises : 

1.  Hurra!  we  have  won!  2.  Pshaw,  that  is  nonsense.  3.  Ha, 
ha,  ha!  I  am  glad  of  it.  4.  Hem!  did  he  say  so?  5.  "0,"  said 
John,     6.  What!  tired  so  soon? 


THE  NOUN". 

20.   ORAL  LESSON. 

Write  on  your  slates  the  names  of  five  objects  in  the  school- 
room. These  words,  as  you  perceive,  are  not  the  objects  them- 
selves, but  their  names.  Now  write  the  names  of  five  objects 
not  in  the  school-room.  What  are  these  words  called?  Ans. — 
Nouns.  Why?  Ans. — Because  they  are  names.  Write  the 
names  of  five  of  your  school-mates.  What  are  these  words 
called?    Ans. — Nouns.    Why?    Ans. — Because  they  are  names. 

Are  there  not  other  names  by  which  your  school-mates  are 
called  ?  Ans. — Yes ;  they  may  be  called  girls  and  boys.  Can 
the  name  "  girl "  be  applied  to  all  the  girls  in  the  room  ? 
Ans. — Yes.     Can  the  name  "Sarah"  be  applied  to  all  the  girls 


30  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

in  the  room?  Ans. — It  can  not.  Why?  Ans. — All  the  girls 
are  not  named  "Sarah."  There  are  Mary,  and  Charlotte,  and 
Jane,  and  Susan,  and  many  other  names  for  girls. 

We  have,  then,  two  kinds  of  Nouns,  or  names.  One  kind 
can  be  applied  to  each  one  of  a  class,  and  the  other  kind  can 
be  applied  to  a  particular  one  only.  The  first  kind  are  called 
Common  Nouns — they  are  names  common  to  all  the  individuals 
of  a  class;  the  second  are  called  Proper  Nouns — they  are  names 
of  particular  objects,  and  are  used  to  distinguish  their  objects 
from  the  classes  to  which  they  belong.  What  kind  are  the 
names  horse,  6ook,  boy,  girl,  map,  blackboards  Ans. — Common 
Nouns.  Why?  Ans. — Because  they  can  be  applied  to  each 
one  of  a  class.  What  kind  are  the  names  John,  Charles,  Wash- 
ington, Boston,  Europe?  Ans. — Proper  Nouns.  Why?  Ans. — 
Because  they  can  be  applied  to  particular  persons,  or  particu- 
lar places,  only,  and  distinguish  them  from  the  classes  to 
which  they  belong. 

21.  DEFINITION. 
A  Noun  is  a  name ;  as,  desk,  Richard,  goodness,  army. 


22.  CLASSES. 

1.  There  are  two  classes  of  Nouns :  Common  and 
Proper. 

2.  A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  which  may  be  applied 
to  any  one  of  a  kind  or  class  of  objects ;  as,  boy,  child, 
book,  radiation. 

3.  A  Proper  Noun  is  the  name  of  some  particular 
person,  place,  people,  or  thing;  as,  Charles,  Cincinnati, 
The  French,  The  Sun. 

Rem.  I. — A  proper  noun  is  used  to  distinguish  an  object  from 
the  class  to  which  it  belongs.  A  word  not  used  for  that  pur- 
pose is  not  a  proper  noun. 

Rem.  2. — Whenever  a  proper  noun  is  used  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  admit  of  its  application  to  each  individual  of  a  class,  it 


ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS.  31 

becomes  a  common  noun ;  as,  "  He  is  the  Cicero  of  our  age ;  " 
"  Bolivar  was  the  Washington  of  South  America ;  "  "  He  piled 
Ossa  upon  Pelion  to  accomplish  his  purpose." 

Rem.  3. — Whenever  a  common  noun  is  used  to  distinguish  one 
individual  from  another  of  the  same  class,  it  becomes  a  proper 
noun;  as,  The  Havana;  The  Falls;   The  Laurel  Ridge.  , 

Rem.  4. — When  two  or  more  words  form  but  one  name, 
they  are  taken  together  as  one  noun ;  as,  New  York ;  Niagara 
Falls ;  John  Milton ;  Lord  Bacon ;  Chief  Justice  Chase. 

Rem.  5. — Common  Nouns  in&y  be  divided  into  four  classes: 
Class  Nouns,  Abstract  Nouns,  ^Jollective  Nouns,  and  Participial 
Nouns. 

Class  Nouns  are  names  which  can  be  applied  to  each  indi- 
vidual of  a  class  or  group  of  objects;    as,  horse,  apple,  man. 

An  Abstract  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality  considered  apart 
from  the  object  in  which  it  is  found;   as,  brightness,  cohesion. 

A  Collective  Noun  is  a  name  singular  in  form,  though  de- 
noting more  than  one ;  as,  herd,  jury,  swarm,  school,  assembly. 

A  Participial  Noun  is  the  name  of  an  action,  or  a  state  of 
being;  as,  singing,  standing,  seeming. 

Rem.  6. — Words,  phrases,  and  clauses  used  as  nouns,  or  in 
the  relations  in  which  nouns  occur,  are  called  substantives,  and 
when  thus  used  have  all  the  properties  of  nouns. 

Rem.  7. — Such  words  as  mass,  heap,  furniture,  names  of  col- 
lections of  objects  without  life,  are  class  nouns,  not  collective 
nouns.    They  are  sometimes  called  mass  nouns. 


23.  PROPERTIES. 

The  Properties  of  the  Noun  are  Gender,  Person,  Num« 
ber,  and  Case. 

24.  GENDER. 

1.  Gender  is  a  distinction  of  nouns  and  pronouns  with 
regard  to  sex. 

Rem. — Sex  is   a   natural  distinction  of  objects — gender  is  a 
grammatical  distinction  of  words  used  to  represent  objects. 


32  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

2.  There  are  four  genders:  Masculine,  Feminine,  Com* 
mon,  and  Neuter. 

3.  The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  males ;  as,  father, 
uncle,  king,  governor. 

4.  The  Feminine  Gender  denotes  females ;  as,  mother, 
aunt,  queen,  governess. 

5.  The  Common  Gender  denotes  either  males  or  fe- 
males, or  both ;  as,  parent,  children,  bird,  cattle. 

6.  The  Neuter  Gender  denotes  neither  males  nor  fe- 
males ;  as,  stove,  city,  pen,  ink,  tree,  house. 

Rem.  I. — By  a  figure  of  speech,  called  Personification,  sex  is 
sometimes  ascribed  to  inanimate  objects.  The  nouns  denoting 
them  are  then  regarded  as  either  masculine  or  feminine. 

Ex. — "The  ship  has  lost  her  rudder."  "The  meek-eyed  morn 
appears,  mother  of  dews."  "The  sun  in  his  glory;  the  moon  in 
her  wane." 

Rem.  2. — Names  of  animals  are  regarded  as  either  masculine 
or  feminine  according  to  the  qualities  ascribed. 

Ex. — "The  nightingale  sings  her  song."  "The  lion  meets  his  foe 
boldly."    "  The  fox  made  his  escape." 

Rem.  3. — Nouns  used  to  denote  both  genders,  though  strictly 
applicable  to  males  only,  or  females  only,  are  usually  regarded 
as  masculine. 

Ex. — "  Heirs  are  often  disappointed."  "  The  English  are  a  proud 
people."    "  The  poets  of  America." 

Rem.  4.— The  distinction  of  sex  is  not  observed  in  speaking  of 
inferior  animals,  or  sometimes  even  of  children. 

Ex.—"  The  bee  on  its  wing."    "  The  child  in  its  cradle." 

7.  There  are  three  ways  of  distinguishing  the  mascu- 
line and  feminine  genders : 

1.  By  using  different  words : 

Ex — Bachelor,  maid,  spinster;  bridegroom,  bride;  brother,  sister; 
boy,  girl ;  cock,  hen  ;  drake,  duck ;  earl,  countess ;  father,  mother ; 
gentleman,  lady;  hart,  roe;  male,  female;  man,  woman;  Mr.,  Mrs.; 


ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS.  •  33 

Sir,  Madam ;   nephew,  niece ;   son,  daughter ;    uncle,  aunt ;  Charles, 
Caroline;  Augustus,  Augusta. 

2.  By  different  terminations: 

Ex. — Abbot,  abbess;  baron,  baroness;  host,  hostess;  actor,  actress; 
prior,  prioress ;  benefactor,  benefactress ;  executor,  executrix ;  mur- 
derer, murderess;  sorcerer,  sorceress. 

3.  By  prefixes  and  suffixes: 

Ex. — Man-servant,  maid-servant;  he-bear,  she-bear;  male-descend- 
ant, female-descendant;  cock-sparrow,  hen-sparrow;  Mr.  Smith,  Mrs. 
Smith,  Miss  Smith ;  pea-cock,  pea-hen. 


25.  PERSON. 

1.  Person  is  that  property  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
which  distinguishes  the  speaker,  the  person  spoken  to, 
and  the  person  or  object  spoken  of. 

2.  There  are  three  persons:  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

3.  The  First  Person  denotes  the  speaker;  as,  "I, 
John,  was  in  the  isle  that  is  called  Patmos."  "  Many- 
evils  beset  us  mortals." 

4.  The  Second  Person  denotes  the  person  addressed ; 
as,  "  James,  be  more  careful."  "  Fellow  Citizens,  the 
crisis  demands  the  utmost  vigilance." 

5.  The  Third  Person  denotes  the  person  or  object 
spoken  of;  as,  "Milton  was  a  poet;"  "Rome  was  an 
ocean  of  flame"     "  I   am   reading   TennysonJs   Poems" 

Rem.  I. — The  writer  or  speaker  often  speaks  of  himself,  or 
the  person  he  addresses,  in  the  third  person;  as,  "Mr.  Johnson 
has  the  pleasure  of  informing  Mr.  Mason  that  he  has  been 
elected  Honorary  Member  of  the  Oriental  Society." 

Rem.  2. — A  noun  in  the  predicate  is  of  the  third  person, 
though  the  subject  may  be  of  the  first  or  second. 

Ex. — "You  are  the  man  wanted."    "We  are  strangers."    "I  am  he 
whom  you  saw." 
H.  G— 3. 


34  *  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR. 


26.  NUMBER. 


1.  Number  is  that  property  of  a  noun  which  distin- 
guishes one  from  more  than  one. 

2.  There  are  two  numbers:  Singular  and  Plural. 

3.  The  Singular  Number  denotes  but  one;  as,  apple, 
flower,  boy,  girl. 

4.  The  Plural  Number  denotes  more  than  one;  as, 
apples,  flowers,  boys,  girls. 

27.  FORMATION  OP  THE  PLURAL. 

1.  Nouns  whose  last  sound  will  unite  with  the  sound  repre- 
sented by  s,  form  their  plurals  by  adding  s  only  to  the  singu- 
lar; as,  book,  boohs;  boy,  hoys;  desk,  desks. 

2.  Nouns  whose  last  sound  will  not  unite  with  the  sound 
represented  by  s,  form  their  plurals  by  adding  es  to  the  singu- 
lar; as,  church,  churches;  box,  boxes;  witness,  witnesses. 

3.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant,  change  y 
into  i,  and  add  es ;  as,  glory,  glories;  mercy,  mercies. 

4.  Most  nouns  ending  in/ change/ to  v,  and  add  es;  those 
ending  in  fe  change/  to  v,  and  add  s;  as,  beef,  beeves;  wife, 
wives. 

5.  Most  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant,  add 
es;  as,  cargo,  cargoes.  Nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  vowel, 
add  s ;  as,  folio,  folios. 

6.  Some  nouns  form  their  plurals  irregularly;  as,  man,  men; 
ox,  oxen;  tooth,  teeth;  mouse,  mice. 

7.  Letters,  figures,  marks,  and  signs  add  's;  as,  "Mind  your 
p's  and  q's;"  the  9's  and  ll's;  the  >|<'s;  the  -f's;  "Those  3's 
and  9's." 

8.  In  compound  words,  the  part  which  is  described  by  the 
rest  is  generally  pluralized  ;  as,  brothers-in-law t  cowrte-martial  ; 
Yt&gon-loads,   ox-carts. 


ETYMOLOGY—NOUNS.  35 

9.  Compound  words  from  foreign  languages  form  their  plu- 
rals according  to  (1)  and  (2);  as,  tete-ct-tetes,  piano-fortes,  ipse-dixits, 
scire-f aclases. 

10.  Some  compound  words  have  both  parts  made  plural ; 
as,  man-servant,  men-servants ;  knight-templar,  knights-templars ; 
ignis-fatuus,  ignes-fatui. 

11.  Compound  terms  composed  of  a  proper  noun  and  a  title£ 
may  be  pluralized  by  adding  a  plural  termination  to  either 
the  name  or  the  title,  but  not  to  both ;  as,  the  Miss  Browns, 
the  Misses  Brown ;  the  Messrs.  Thompson ;  "  May  there  be  Sir 
Isaac  Newtons  in  every  science?" 

12.  When  the  title  is  preceded  by  a  numeral,  the  name  is 
always  pluralized  ;  as,  the  three  Miss  Johnsons ;  the  two  Dr. 
Bensons ;  the  two  Mrs.  Kendricks. 

13.  Some  nouns  have  two  plurals,  but  with  a  difference  m 
meaning;  as,  brother,  brothers  (of  the  same  family),  brethren  (of 
the  same  society);  die,  dies  (stamps  for  coining),  dice  (for  gam- 
ing); fish,  Jishes  (individuals),  fish  (quantity,  or  the  species); 
genius,  geniuses  (men  of  genius),  genii  (spirits);  index,  indexes 
(tables  of  contents),  indices  (algebraic  signs);  penny,  pennies 
(pieces  of  money),  pence  (how  much  in  value);  pea,  peas  (indi- 
viduals), pease  (in  distinction  from  other  vegetables). 

14.  Proper  nouns,  and  words  generally  used  as  other  parts 
of  speech,  are  changed  as  little  as  possible,  and  usually  add  s 
only  in  forming  their  plurals;  as,  Mary,  Marys;  Sarah,  Sarahs; 
Nero,  Neros;  "The  novel  is  full  of  ohs,  bys,  whys,  alsos,  and  nos." 
There  is  good  authority,  however,  for  using  Maries,  Neroes, 
whies,  noes. 

15.  Many  nouns  from  foreign  languages  retain  their  original 
plurals,  changing  us  to  *;  urn,  and  on  to  a;  is  to  es  or  ides;  a  to  ce 
or  ata;  and  x  or  ex  to  ces  or  ices;  as,  calculus,  calculi:  arcanum, 
arcana;  criterion,  criteria;  thesis,  theses;  ephemeris,  ephemerides ; 
nebula,  nebulas;  calix,  calices ;  index,  indices. 


28.  GENERAL  REMARKS  ON  NUMBER. 

1.  Abstract  nouns,  and  names  of  material  substances,  have 
no  plural  forms;   as,  silver,  vinegar,  hemp,  tar,  frankness,  darkness. 


36  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

When  different  kinds  of  the  same  substance  are  referred  to, 
a  plural  form  may  be  used;  as,  sugars,  vinegars,  wines,  oils. 

2.  Some  nouns  have  no  singular  forms;  as,  ashes,  assets, 
bellows,  billiards,  compasses,  clothes,  drawers,  lees,  scissors,  shears, 
tongs.  News  and  molasses  have  the  plural  form,  but  are  re- 
garded as  singular.  Lungs,  bowels,  and  a  few  others,  have  a 
singular  form  denoting  a  part  of  the  whole;   as,   "The  left 


3.  Some  nouns  have  no  singular  forms,  but  are  singular  or 
plural  in  meaning ;  as,  alms,  amends,  corps,  mumps,  measles,  nup- 
tials, odds,  riches,  series,  suds,  tidings,  wages,  and  some  others. 

4.  The  names  of  some  of  the  sciences  are  either  singular  or 
plural  in  meaning,  according  as  they  denote  the  science  or 
the  objects  of  which  the  science  treats;  as,  ethics,  mechanics, 
mathematics,  optics,  pedagogics,  physics,  etc. 

5.  Some  nouns  are  alike  in  both  numbers;  as,  sheep,  deer, 
vermin,  couple,  salmon,  trout,  dozen,  gross,  hose,  yoke. 


29.  CASK 

Case  is  the  relation  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  other 
words.  Nouns  have  four  cases :  Nominative,  Possessive, 
Objective,  and  Absolute,  or  Nominative  Absolute. 

Rem. — The  term  case  is  also  applied  to  the  form  of  a  noun 
or  pronoun  when  used  independently,  or  as  a  part  of  a 
Bentence. 

30.   NOMINATIVE   CASE. 

The  Nominative  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
as  the  subject  or  the  predicate  of  a  proposition. 

Ex. — "  The  sun  is  shining."  "  That  man  is  a  sailor."  In  the 
first  sentence,  "  sun  "  is  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  used 
as  the  subject  of  the  proposition ;  in  the  second,  "  sailor  "  is  in  the 
nominative  case,  because  it  is  used  as  the  predicate  of  the  proposi- 
tion. 


ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS.  37 


31.   POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

1.  The  Possessive  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun  to   denote   ownership,  authorship,  origin,  or  kind. 

Ex. — Susan's  book  ;  Gray's  Botany  ;  the  sun's  rays  ;  boys1  hats ; 
men's  clothing. 

2.  The  Possessive  Case  Singular  is  formed  by  annex- 
ing 's  to  the  nominative;  as,  John's,  Clarence's. 

3.  The  Possessive  Case  Plural  is  formed  by  annexing 
the  apostrophe  only,  when  the  nominative  plural  ends 
with  s;  as,  boys';  "The  Ohio  State  Teachers'  Asso- 
ciation." 

Rem.  I. — Plural  nouns  not  ending  with  s,  form  their  pos- 
sessive case  by  annexing  's;  as,  mens  hats;  children's  shoes. 

Rem.  2. — In  compound  names,  the  possessive  sign  is  annexed 
to  the  last  word;  as,  "Daniel  Webster's  speeches:"  in  complex 
names  it  is  annexed  to  the  last  word ;  as,  "  The  Bishop  of 
Dublin's  palace : "  in  a  series  of  terms,  and  common  possession, 
it  is  annexed  to  the  last  term;  as,  "Day  &  Martins  Blacking:" 
in  a  series  of  terms,  and  separate  possession,  it  is  annexed  to 
each  term;  as,  "Webster's  and  Worcester's  Dictionaries." 

Rem.  3. — When  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case  is  limited  by 
a  noun  in  apposition  with  it,  or  by  a  descriptive  phrase,  the 
possessive  sign  is  annexed  to  the  noun  immediately  preceding 
the  object  possessed,  though  not  always  to  the  name  of  the 
possessor;  as,  "Her  Majesty,  Queen  Victoria's  government;" 
"The  captain  of  the  Fulton's  wife  died  yesterday."  Here  "cap- 
tain" is  in  the  possessive  case,  and  "Fulton"  in  the  objective, 
governed  by  the  preposition  "of." 

Rem.  4. — In  compound  words,  the  sign  of  possession  is  placed 
at  the  end;  as,  "The  knight-templars  costume;"  "My  brother-in- 
law  s  residence." 

Rem.  5. — "  For  conscience'  sake,"  "  For  goodness'  sake,"  etc., 
are  idiomatic  exceptions  to  the  general  rule  for  forming  the 
possessive  case  singular. 


38  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

Rem.  6. — The  sign  ['s]  is  a  contraction  of  is  or  es;  as,  John's, 
Kings;  anciently  written,  Johns,  Kingis,  or  Johnes,  Kinges. 


32.  OBJECTIVE  CASE. 

The  Objective  Case  is  the  use  of  a  noun  or  pronoun 
as  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  active  voice,  or 
of  a  preposition. 

Ex. — "  John  studies  grammar."  "  The  book  is  on  the  table."  In 
the  first  sentence,  "  grammar  "  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
"  studies  •  "  in  the  second,  "  table  "  is  the  object  of  the  preposition 
"  on." 

Rem. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  complete  the  meaning 
of  a  transitive  verb  is  called  a  direct  object;  as,  "I  bought  a 
book."  When  added  to  a  verb  to  denote  that  to  or  for  which 
any  thing  is  or  is  done,  or  that  from  which  any  thing  pro- 
ceeds, it  is  called  an  indirect  object ;  as,  "  I  bought  him  a 
book."  In  this  sentence,  "book"  is  the  direct  and  "him"  the 
indirect  object  of  "  bought."  When  an  indirect  object  precedes 
the  direct,  the  preposition  should  be  omitted;  when  it  follows, 
it  should  be  expressed;  as,  "I  gave  him  an  apple;"  "I  gave  an 
apple  to  him." 

33.  ABSOLUTE  CASE. 

The  Absolute  or  Nominative  Absolute  Case  is  the  use 
of  a  noun  independent  of  any  governing  word. 

Ex. — "John,  bring  me  a  book ; "  "  Your  fathers,  where  are  they  ?" 
"Honor  being  lost,  all  is  lost." 

Rem.  I. — A  noun  or  pronoun  in  this  case  has  the  same  form 
that  it  would  have  were  it  in  the  nominative  case.  Hence, 
the  case  may,  with  propriety,  be  called  nominative  absolute — this 
term  indicating  both  the  form  and  the  use  of  the  word. 

Rem.  2. — A  noun  may  be  in  the  nominative  absolute  case : 

1.  By  direct  address;  as,  "Charles,  come  to  me."  This  use  is 
sometimes  called  the  Vocative  Case. 

2.  By  mere  exclamation;  as,  ''Oh,  Popular  Applause!'' 


ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS.  39 

3.  By  pleonasm,  or  by  placing  the  noun  before  the  sentence 
in  which  an  affirmation  is  made  concerning  it;  as,  "  Gad,  a 
troop  shall  overcome  him." 

4.  With  a  participle;  as,  "The  sun  being  risen,  we  pursued 
our  journey." 

5.  By  position;  i.  e.,  by  using  it  as  the  heading  of  a  chapter, 
as  the  superscription  to  a  letter,  etc.;  as,  "A  Flood;"  "Louis 
Agassiz." 

34.  NOUNS  IN  APPOSITION. 

A  noun  limiting  the  meaning  of  another  noun,  denot- 
ing the  same  person,  place,  or  thing,  is,  by  apposition, 
in  the  same  case. 

Ex. — "Washington  the  general  became  Washington  the  statesman." 
"  We  visited  New  York,  the  metropolis  of  the  United  States,"  "  In 
her  brother  Abraham's  house." 


35.   DECLENSION. 

The  Declension  of  a  noun  is  its  variation  to  denote 
number  and  case, 

EXAMPLES. 


Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Boy,  Boys, 

Pass.  Boy's,  Boys', 

Obj.    Boy.  Boys. 

Nom.  Charles,  

Poss.  Charles's,  

Obj.    Charles.  


Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Fly,  Flies, 

Poss.  Fly's,  Flies', 

Obj.    Fly.  Flies. 

Nom.  Goodness,  

Poss.  Goodness',  

Obj.    Goodness.  


36.   PARSING-. 

Parsing  consists,  (1)  in  naming  the  part  of  speech; 
(2)  in  telling  its  properties;  (3)  in  pointing  out  its  rela- 
tion to  other  words;  (4)  in  giving  the  rule  for  its  con- 
struction. 


40  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


37.  ORDER  OP  PARSING. 

1.  A  Noun,  and  why? 

2.  Common  or  Proper,  and  why? 

3.  Gender,  and  why? 

4.  Person,  and  why? 

5.  Number,  and  why? 

6.  Case,  and  why? 

7.  Rule  for  construction. 


38.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING. 


I.  "  Mary  sings.'' 

Mary  ...  is  a  noun;  it  is  a  name;  proper,  it  is  the  name  of  a  par- 
ticular person ;  feminine  gender,  it  denotes  a  female ;  third 
person,  it  denotes  the  person  spoken  of;  singular  number, 
it  denotes  but  one ;  nominative  case,  it  is  used  as  the  sub- 
ject of  the  proposition,  "  Mary  sings."  Rule  I.  "  The  sub- 
ject of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nominative  case.* 

II.  "  Horses  are  animals.1' 

Animals  .  is  a  noun;  common,  it  can  be  applied  to  any  one  of  a 
class  or  kind ;  common  gender,  it  denotes  either  males  or 
females;  third  person;  plural  number,  it  denotes  more  than 
one;  nominative  case,  it  is  used  as  the  predicate  of  the 
proposition,  "  Horses  are  animals."  Rule  II.  "  A  noun 
or  pronoun  used  as  the  predicate  of  a  proposition,  is  in 
the  nominative  case." 


III.  "  The  poet  Milton  was  blind." 

Milton  .  .  is  a  noun;  proper;  masculine  gender,  it  denotes  a  male; 
third  person;  singular  number;  nominative  case,  in  apposi- 
tion with  '  poet."  Rule  IV.  "  A  noun  or  pronoun  used 
to  limit  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  by  denoting 
the  same  person,  place,  or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case." 


ETYMOLOGY— NOUNS.  41 

IV.  "  Henry's  lesson  is  learned." 

Henry's  .  is  a  noun;  proper;  masculine  gender ;  third  person;  singular 
number ;  possessive  case,  it  denotes  possession,  and  modifies 
"  lesson."  Rule  III.  "  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  limit 
the  meaning  of  a  noun  denoting  a  different  thing,  is  in 
the  possessive  case/' 

V.  "John  studies  grammar." 

Grammar  is  a  noun;  common;  neuter  gender;  third  person;  singular 
number;  objective  case,  it  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  tran- 
sitive verb  "studies."  Rule  VI.  "The  object  of  a  tran- 
sitive verb  in  the  active  voice,  or  of  its  participles,  is 
in  the  objective  case." 

VI.  "The  book  lies  on  the  table.'1 

Table  .  .  is  a  noun;  common;  neuter  gender ;  third  person;  singular 
number;  objective  case,  it  is  used  as  the  object  of  the  prep- 
osition "  on."  Rule  VII.  "  The  object  of  a  preposition 
is  in  the  objective  case." 

VII.  ''William,  open  the  door." 

William  .  is  a  noun;  proper;  masculine  gender;  second  person;  singular 
number;  absolute  case,  it  is  the  name  of  a  person  addressed. 
Rule  V.  "A  noun  or  pronoun  used  independently,  is  i& 
the  absolute  case." 

Note. — For  models  for  parsing  participial  nouns,  see  §  90. 


39.  EXERCISES. 

1.  The  wind  blows.  2.  The  sun  shines.  3.  Horses  run. 
4.  The  vessel  sails.  5.  Scholars  study.  6.  Grass  grows.  7.  Fire 
burns.  8.  Liberty  is  sweet.  9.  St.  Helena  is  an  island.  10. 
Lead  is  a  metal.  11.  Cicero  was  an  orator.  12.  Grammar  is 
a  science.  13.  The  storm's  fury  is  past.  14.  Henry's  health  is 
good.  15.  The  king's  palace  is  on  fire.  16.  Jane  borrowed 
Sarah's  book.  17.  Mr.  Johnson  sells  boys'  hats.  18,  The  de- 
feat of  Xerxes'  army  was  the  downfall  of   Persia.      19.  John 


42  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

struck  James.  20.  Joseph  bought  the  book.  21.  Peter  studies 
algebra.  22.  The  horse  kicked  the  boy.  23.  The  man  wrote 
a  letter.  24.  Samuel  lives  over  the  river.  25.  Martha  went 
with  Susan.  26.  James  is  going  to  Cincinnati.  27.  The  boy- 
ran  by  the  mill.  28.  "  Friends,  Romans,  Countrymen !  lend 
me  your  ears  !  "  29.  "  To  arms  !  they  come  !  the  Greek  !  the 
Greek  !  "  30.  "  My  daughter  !  oh,  my  daughter  !  "  31.  "  Your 
fathers,  where  are  they?"     32.  "My  son,  have  you  seen  him?" 

Parse  all  the  nouns  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Johnson  the  doctor  is  a  brother  of  Johnson  the  lawyer. 
2.  Shakespeare  lived  in  Queen  Elizabeth's  reign.  3.  "Ah,  War- 
wick !  Warwick !  wert  thou  as  we  are ! "  4.  Temperance  is  a 
virtue.  5.  "King  Agrippa,  believest  thou  the  prophets?"  6.  The 
inferior  animals  are  divided  into  five  classes:  quadrupeds,  fowls, 
fishes,  reptiles,  and  insects.  7.  The  little  army  fought  bravely 
on  that  day.  8.  Where  are  the  Platos  and  Aristotles  of  mod- 
ern times?  9.  I  have  seen  Mr.  Squires,  the  book-seller  and 
stationer. 

Correct  all  errors  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  have  two  brother-in-laws.  2.  There  were  three  knight- 
templars  in  the  procession.  3.  Nebulas  are  sometimes  called 
star-dust.  4.  I  saw  the  two  Mrs.  Jackson.  5.  He  called  at 
Steele's  the  banker's.  6.  The  Jones'  were  all  there.  7.  The 
boys  slate  was  broken.  8.  The  mens'  wages  should  be  paid 
promptly.  9.  She  is  reading  in  her  sister's  Susan's  book.  10. 
He  studied  0.  B.  Pierce'  Grammar.  11.  He  has  octavoes, 
quartoes,  and  folioes,  among  his  books.  12.  There  are  three 
chimnies  on  that  house.  13.  We  regard  them  as  singular 
Tohenomenons. 


THE  ADJECTIVE 


40.  ORAL  LESSON. 

Here  are  some  apples,  nice  for  eating:  what  shall  we  call 
them?     Ans. — JRipe  apples.      I   have  just   eaten   one,  and   it 


ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES.  43 

tasted  sweet:  what  else  can  we  call  them?  Ans. — Sweet  apples. 
They  are  quite  soft :  what  else  can  we  call  them  ?  Ans. — 
Mellow  apples.  Write  on  your  slates,  "Ripe,  sweet,  mellow  ap- 
ples." •  All  these  words  denote  some  quality  of  the  apple: 
what  shall  we  call   them?     Ans. — Quality-words.     A  very  good 


Let  us  count  the  apples:  one  apple,  two  apples,  three  apples, 
jour  apples.  Let  us  also  number  them :  the  first  apple,  the 
second  apple,  the  third  apple,  the  fourth  apple.  Write  these 
numbers  on  your  slates,  as  I  write  them  on  the  blackboard — 
one,  two,  three,  four :  first,  second,  third,  fourth.  What  shall  we 
call  these  words?     Ans. — Number-words. 

When  I  speak  of  the  apple  nearest  me,  I  say,  "This  apple;" 
when,  of  one  farther  from  me,  "  That  apple."  Do  the  words 
this  and  tliat  denote  any  quality  of  the  apples  ?  Ans. — They  do 
not.  What  do  they  do,  then?  Ans. — They  point  them  out. 
Very  well:  what  shall  we  call  them?     Ans. — Pointing-out-words. 

You  see  that  all  the  words  we  have  used,  in  some  manner 
describe  "apples."  Some  denote  quality;  some,  number;  some 
merely  point  out.  What  is  the  word  "apple?"  Ans. — A  noun. 
Then  they  all  describe  a  noun.  What  are  all  of  these  words? 
Ans. — Adjectives. 

The  "  quality-words "  we  will  call  Descriptive  Adjectives,  be- 
cause they  describe  by  denoting  some  quality.  The  "  number- 
words  "  and  "  pointing-out-words "  do  not  denote  quality.  We 
will  call  them  Definitive  Adjectives. 

Write,  "This  is  a  good  book."  What  is  "good?"  Ans. — 
An  adjective.  Why?  Ans. — It  describes  the  word  "book." 
What  .  kind  ?  Ans. — Descriptive.  Why  ?  Ans. — It  denotes  a 
quality  belonging  to  the  book.  Write,  "These  two  books  ai% 
mine."  What  are  "these"  and  "two?"  Ans. — Adjectives. 
Why?  Ans. — They  describe  "books."  What  kind?  Ans. — 
Definitive.  Why?  Ans. — They  define  without  denoting  any 
quality. 

Write,  "Every  man  can  do  some  good.''  What  are  "every" 
and  "some?"  Ans. — Adjectives.  Why?  Ans. — They  limit 
nouns.  What  kind?  Ans. — Definitive.  Why?  Ans. — They 
define  without  denoting  any  quality. 


44  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

41.   DEFINITION. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  describe  or  define  a 
nourij  as,  wise  men,  that  book,  three  steamships,  the 
fourth  stanza. 

42.  CLASSES. 

Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes: 
Descriptive  and  Definitive. 

43.  DESCRIPTIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  A  Descriptive  Adjective  limits  or  describes  a  noun 
by  denoting  some  quality  belonging  to  it. 

Ex. — A  round  table,  a  square  table,  a  sour  apple,  a  sweet  apple,  a 
good  boy,  a  bad  boy,  an  Italian  sunset,  twinkling  stars,  thick-warbled 
songs. 

Rem.  I. — Words  commonly  used  as  other  parts  of  speech, 
sometimes  perform  the  office  of  descriptive  adjectives,  and 
should  be  parsed  as  such. 

Ex. — A  gold  ring,  a  silver  cord,  the  California  pine,  a  make-believe 
patriot,  double-distilled  nonsense.  "The  West  is  as  truly  American, 
as  genuinely  Jonathan,  as  any  other  part  of  our  country/' 

Rem.  2. — An  adjective  is  frequently  limited  by  a  word  joined 
to  it  by  a  hyphen.  The  compound  term  thus  formed  is  called 
a  Compound  Adjective,  and   should  be  parsed  as  a  single  word. 

Ex. — A  high-sounding  title,  an  ill-matched  pair. 

Rem.  3. — Adjectives  derived  from  verbs  are  called  Participial 
Adjectives.  They  are  usually  placed  before  the  nouns  which 
they  modify. 

Ex. — We  walked  across  a  plowed  field,  and  soon  came  to  the 
flowing  spring. 

Rem.  4. — When  a  descriptive  adjective  represents  a  noun 
understood,  or  not  expressed,  the  article  must  be  prefixed;  as, 
"The  wise  are  provident;"  "The  good  are  happy."  Adjectives 
thus  used  should  be  parsed  as  adjectives  used  as  nouns. 


ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES.  45 

Tell  which  of  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences  are  Descriptive, 
and  which  are  Compound  and  Participial: 

1.  The  unfortunate  man  was  a  hard-working  mechanic.  2. 
The  fields  looked  beautiful.  3.  English  books  are  costly.*  4. 
The  howling  storm  is  passed.  5.  The  soil  is  very  productive. 
6.  The  water  falls  into  a  marble  basin.  7.  I  prefer  a  New 
England  winter  to  an  Australian  summer. 


44.  DEFINITIVE  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  A  Definitive  Adjective   limits  or  defines  the  appli- 
cation of  a  noun  without  expressing  any  of  its  qualities. 

Ex. — The  Ohio,  that  man,  three  dollars,  the  third  seal,  a  two-fold 
reference.     "All  men  are  mortal."    "Each  soldier  received  his  pay." 

2.  Definitive  Adjectives  are  divided  into  three  classes: 
Articles,  Pronominal  Adjectives,  and  Numeral  Adjectives. 


45.  ARTICLES. 

1.  "The"  is  called  the  Definite  Article,  because  it 
definitely  points  out  the  object  which  it  defines  or  re- 
stricts; as,  "The  book  is  on  the  table;"  "The  horse  ran 
over  the  bridge." 

2.  "A"  or  "An"  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article,  be- 
cause it  defines  or  restricts  in  an  indefinite  or  general 
manner ;  as,  "  A  book  is  on  a  table ; "  "A  horse  ran 
over  a  bridge." 

"An"  should  be  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel 
sound;  "A,"  before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant  sound. 
They  are  spoken  of  as  one  article,  because  they  are  merely  an 
earlier  and  a  later  form  of  the  same  word. 

Rem. — An  article  sometimes  limits  not  a  noun  alone,  but  a 
noun  as  limited  by  other  words;  as,  "The  old  men  retired  early; 
the  young  men   remained   until   midnight."      The   article  here 


46  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 

limits  the  complex  ideas  "old  men"  and  "young  men."  "An 
early  spring  is  no  sign  of  a  fruitful  season."  The  article  here 
limits  the  complex  ideas  "early  spring"  and  "fruitful  season." 


46.  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Pronominal  Adjectives  are  definitives,  most  of  which 
may,  without  an  article  prefixed,  represent  a  noun  un- 
derstood; as,  all  men,  each  soldier,  yonder  mountain. 

2.  They  may  be  divided  into  three  classes:  Demon- 
stratives, Distributives,  and  Indefinites. 

47.  DEMONSTRATIVES. 

Demonstratives  point  out  objects  definitely.  They 
are :  this,  that,  these,  those,  former,  latter,  both,  same, 
yon,   yonder. 

1.  This  (plural  these)  distinctly  points  out  an  object  as  near 
in  place  or  time;  as,  "This  desk  and  these  books." 

2.  That  (plural  those)  distinctly  points  out  an  object  as  not 
near,  or  not  so  near  as  some  other  object;  as,  "That  desk  and 
those  books." 

3.  In  speaking  of  two  objects,  that  should  refer  to  the 
former,  and  this  to  the  latter;  as,  "These  horses  are  larger 
than  those." 

4.  Former  and  latter  are  used  to  designate  which  of  two 
objects  previously  mentioned  is  referred  to;  as,  "The  cry  of 
danger  to  the  Union  was  raised  to  divert  their  assaults  upon 
the  Constitution.  It  was  the  latter,  and  not  the  former,  which 
was  in  danger." 

5.  Both  implies  the  one  and  the  other;  as,  "Both  forts  were 
taken;"  "James  and  Silas  were  both  tardy." 

6.  Same  denotes  an  identical  object  or  one  of  like  kind;  as, 
"That  is  the  same  man  we  saw  yesterday;"  "Both  tables  are 
made  of  the  same  wood." 


ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES.  47 

7.  Yon   and  yonder  denote  in  view,  but  at  a  distance;   as, 
"Yon  house  on  the  hill;"   "Yonder  mountain  is  a  volcano." 


48.  DISTRIBUTIVES. 

Distributives  represent  objects  as  taken  separately^ 
There  are  four  distributives:  each,  every,  either,  neither. 

1.  Each  can  be  applied  to  one  of  two  or  any  greater  num- 
ber; as,  "Each  warrior  drew  his  battle  blade;"  "Useless  each 
without  the  other." 

2.  Every  denotes  all  taken  separately;  as,  "They  received 
every  man  a  penny;"  "Every  person  in  the  room  was  aston- 
ished." 

3.  Either  should  be  applied  to  one  of  two  objects  only;  as, 
"Either  of  the  two  roads  leads  to  town;"  "You  may  have 
either  house." 

4.  Neither  means  not  either;  as,  "Which  of  the  two  shall  I 
take  ?  both  ?  one  ?  or  neither  $ 


49.  INDEFINITES. 

Indefinites  refer  to  objects  in  a  general  way,  without 
pointing  out  any  one  in  particular.  The  principal  in- 
definites are :  all,  any,  another,  certain,  divers,  enough, 
few,  little,  many,  much,  no,  none,  one,  own,  other,  several, 
some,  sundry,  which,  whichever,  whichsoever,  what,  what- 
ever, whatsoever. 

1.  All  describes  objects  taken  together ;  as,  "All  the  men  were 
at  work  in  the  fields;"  "All  men  are  mortal." 

2.  Any  denotes  a  single  one  of  many,  or  some ;  as,  "  Have  you 
any  wheat  to  sell?"  "Neither  go  into  the  town,  nor  tell  it  to 
any  in  the  town." 

3.  Another,  or  other,  mean^  not  the  same ;  as,  "  He  took 
another  road;"  "He  will  let  out  his  vineyard  to  other  hus- 
bandmen." 


48  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

4,  Certain  denotes  one  or  some;  as,  "And  there  came  a  certain 
poor  widow,  and  she  threw  in  two  mites;"  "And  I,  Daniel, 
was  sick  certain  days." 

5.  Divers  means  unlike,  various,  numerous;  as,  "A  prey  of  divers 
colors  of  needle-work;"  "Divers  miracles." 

6.  Enough  denotes  a  sufficiency;  as,  "I  have  enough  for  my 
brother;"  "Enough  has  been  said  already." 

7.  Few  denotes  a  small  number;  as,  "Many  shall  be  called, 
but  few  chosen;"  "I  have  &  few  old  books." 

8.  Little  means  small  in  quantity,  amount,  or  duration ;  as,  "  A 
little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing." — Pope.  "A  little  sleep,  a 
little  slumber,  a  little  folding  of  the  hands  to  sleep." 

9.  Many  denotes  a  large  number;  as,  "Many  men  of  many 
minds;"    "The  mutable,  rank-scented  many.1' — Shakespeare. 

10.  Much  denotes  a  large  quantity;  as,  "There  is  much  wealth 
in  this  town;"  "Thou  shalt  carry  much  seed  out  into  the  field, 
and  shalt  gather  but  little  in." 

11.  No  means  not  any,  none.  When  used  as  a  noun  in  the 
plural  number,  it  means  those  who  vote  in  the  negative;  as, 
"The  noes  have  it." 

12.  None  means  not  one,  or  not  any;  as,  "Ye  shall  flee  when 
none  pursueth  you;"  "Thou  shalt  have  none  assurance  of  thy 
life."  Use  "no  one"  when  one  only  is  meant;  "none"  when 
more  than  one  are  referred  to. 

13.  One  corresponds  to  another;  as,  "They  love  one  another," 
i.  e.,  each  person  loves  the  other. 

14.  Own  implies  possession ;  as,  "My  own  home;"  "Our  own 
dear  mother." 

15.  Several  denotes  any  small  number  more  than  two;  as,  "  Sev' 
eral  victories."  Also,  single,  individual;  as,  "I'll  kiss  each  several 
paper  for  amends." 

16.  Some  denotes  an  indeterminate  number  or  quantity;  as, 
"Some  money;"    "I  have  brought  some  books," 

17.  Sundry  means  various,  divers;  as,  "Sundry  foes;"  "  Fof 
sundry  weighty  reasons." — Shakespeare. 


ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES.  49 

50.   NUMERAL   ADJECTIVES. 

1.  Numeral  Adjectives  are  those  which  express  num- 
ber and  order  definitely ;  as,  four,  fourth,  fourfold. 

2.  They  are  divided  into  three  classes:  Cardinal,  Or- 
dinal, and  Multiplicative. 

3.  Cardinal  Numerals  denote  simply  the  number  of 
objects;  as,  two,  thirteen,  fifty,  a  thousand. 

4.  Ordinal  Numerals  mark  the  position  of  an  object 
in  a  series ;  as,  second,  thirteenth,  fiftieth,  the  thousandth. 

5.  Multiplicative  Numerals  denote  how  many  fold;  as, 
twofold,  fourfold. 

GENERAL    REMARKS. 

1.  When  such,  many,  only,  but,  and  not  are  followed  by  the 
indefinite  article  a  or  aw,  the  phrases  such  a,  many  a,  etc.,  limit 
singular  nouns;  as,  "If  you  repay  me  not  on  such  a  day;" 
"  Many  a  time;  "  "  He  is  but  a  man ;  "  "  Not  a  drum  was  heard." 
These  phrases  may  be  parsed  as  single  words. 

2.  When  definitive  adjectives  are  used  in  connection  with 
descriptive,  the  former  should  be  placed  first;  as,  "That  valu- 
able property;"  "Ten  small  houses." 

3.  A  cardinal  numeral  used  as  a  noun,  requires  no  article: 
an  ordinal  should  have  the  article  prefixed;  as,  "Were  not  ten 
eleansed?"     "The  tenth  was  rescued." 

4.  Each  other  and  one  another  are  sometimes  called  recipro- 
cals, because  they  are  reciprocally  related;  as,  "They  mutually 
assist  each  other;"  "They  help  one  another"  Parse  "each"  and 
"one"  as  adjectives  used  as  nouns,  in  apposition  with  "they" 
taken  distributively ;  i.  e.,  as  representing  a  number  of  indi- 
viduals taken  separately.  Use  "each"  in  referring  to  two  in- 
dividuals, and  "  one "  in  referring  to  more  than  two.  Parse 
"other"  and  "another"  as  adjectives  used  as  nouns  in  the  ob- 
jective case  after  the  verbs  that  precede  them. 


50  ENGLISH  GKAMMAB. 

5.  Adjectives  which  vary  in  form  to  denote  number,  should 
agree  in  that  property  with  the  nouns  they  limit.  Say,  "this 
sort,"  not  "these  sort." 


51.  COMPARISON. 

1.  Comparison  is  a  variation  of  the  adjective  to  ex- 
press different  degrees  of  quality ;  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest ; 
good,  better,  best. 

2.  There  are  three  Degrees  of  Comparison :  the  Posi- 
tive, the  Comparative,  the  Superlative. 

3.  The  Positive  degree  ascribes  to  an  object  the  simple 
quality,  or  an  equal  degree  of  the  quality ;  as,  "  A  mild 
winter ; "  "  She  is  as  good  as  she  is  beautiful." 

4.  The  Comparative  degree  ascribes  to  one  of  two 
objects  a  higher  or  lower  degree  of  the  quality  than 
that  ascribed  to  the  other;  as,  "A  milder  winter  than 
usual;"  "Mary  is  less  studious  than  Emma." 

5.  The  Superlative  degree  ascribes  the  highest  or  low- 
est degree  of  the  quality  to  one  of  more  than  two  ob- 
jects; as,  "The  mildest  winter  ever  known;"  "The 
least  skillful  rider  could  do  no  worse." 

Rem.  I. — The  suffix  ish,  and  the  words  rather,  somewhat,  etc., 
denote  the  possession  of  a  small  amount  of  the  quality;  as, 
bluish,  rather  young,  somewhat  uncomfortable. 

Rem.  2. — The  words  altogether,  far,  by  far,  vastly,  much,  very, 
exceedingly,  a  most,  a  little,  too,  very,  slightly,  greatly,  etc.,  denote 
a  high  degree  of  the  quality  without  implying  comparison; 
as,  very  useful,  exceedingly  welcome,  a  most  valuable  invention. 

Rem.  3. — Adjectives  denoting  qualities  which  can  not  exist 
in  different  degrees,  can  not,  with*  propriety,  be  compared ; 
but  when  not  taken  in  their  full  sense,  they  may  be  used  in 
the  comparative  and  superlative  degrees. 

Ex. — Blind,  deaf,  perfect,  right,  level,  square,  straight,  perpendic- 
ular, equal,  naked,  honest,  sincere,  hollow,  empty,  dead.  "  My 
sincerest  regards."     u  Our  sight  is  the  most  perfect  of  our  senses." 


ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES.  51 


52.   COMPARATIVES  AND  SUPERLATIVES. 

1.  In  Ascending  comparison,  the  comparative  and  su- 
perlative degrees  are  regularly  formed, — 

1st.  By  adding  to  the  positive  of  monosyllables,  r  or 
er  for  the  comparative,  and  st  or  est  for  the  superlative; 
as,  ivise,  wiser,  wisest;  hard,  harder,  hardest. 

2d.  By  prefixing  to  the  positive  of  adjectives  of  more 
than  one  syllable,  more  for  the  comparative,  and  most 
for  the  superlative;  as,  honorable,  more  honorable,  most 
honorable.  .    • 

Rem.  I. — Most  adjectives  of  two  syllables  ending  in  y  or  le, 
after  a  consonant,  or  accented  on  the  second  syllable,  form 
their  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  like  monosyllables; 
as,  holy,  holier,  holiest ;  gentle,  gentler,  gentlest. 

Rem.  2. — Some  adjectives  of  two  syllables,  ending  in  a  vowel 
or  liquid  sound,  form  their  comparative  and  superlative  de- 
grees like  monosyllables;  as,  handsome,  handsomer,  handsomest; 
narrow,  narrower,   narrowest. 

Rem.  3. — Some  words  are  expressed  in  the  superlative  de- 
gree by  adding  the  suffix  most;  as,  hindmost,  innermost. 

2.  In  Descending  comparison,  the  comparative  is 
formed  by  prefixing  less,  and  the  superlative  by  pre- 
fixing least,  to  the  positive;  as,  wise,  less  wise,  least 
ivise. 

3.  Some  adjectives  are  compared  irregularly;  as,  good, 
better,  best;  bad,  worse,  worst 

Rem.  I. — Monosyllables  are  sometimes  compared  by  prefix- 
ing more  and  most;  as,  "A  foot  more  light,  a  step  more  true." — 
Scott 

Rem.  2. — Two  or  more  adjectives  modifying  the  same  word, 
may  be  compared  by  prefixing  more  and  most  to  the  first;  as, 
"  The  more  nice  and  elegant  parts ;  "  "  Most  potent,  grave,  and 
reverend  seigniors . ' '  — Shakespeare. 


52  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR 

53.  ORDER  OF  PARSING-. 

1.  An  adjective,  and  why? 

2.  Descriptive  or  Definitive,  and  why? 

3.  Compare  it,  if  it  admits  of  comparison. 

4.  Degree  of  comparison,  and  why? 

5.  What  does  it  describe  or  define? 

6.  Eule. 

54.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING. 

I.  u  Every  diligent  boy  received  merited  praise." 

Every ...  is  an  adjective,  it  is  a  word  used  to  describe  or  define  the 
meaning  of  a  noun;  definitive,  it  defines  without  express- 
ing any  quality;  distributive  pronominal,  it  represents  ob- 
jects taken  separately;  it  can  not  be  compared,  and  be- 
longs to  "boy."  Eule  XII.  "An  adjective  or  participle 
belongs  to  some  noun  or  pronoun." 

Diligent  .  is  an  adjective;  descriptive;  it  describes  a  noun  by  denot- 
ing some  quality;  compared,  pos.  diligent,  comp.  more  dili- 
gent, sup.  most  diligent:  positive  degree,  and  belongs  to 
"boy."    Eule  XII. 

Merited  .  is  an  adjective;  descriptive;  compared,  pos.  merited,  comp. 
more  merited,  sup.  most  merited:  positive  degree,  and  be- 
longs to  "praise."     Bule  XII. 

II.  "Many  a  fine  intellect  is  buried  in  poverty." 

Many  a  .  .  is  an  adjective;  definitive;  indefinite  pronominal;  it  refers  to 
objects  in  a  general  way:  it  can  not  be  compared,  and 
belongs  to  "intellect."     Eule  XII. 

Fine  ...  is  an  adjective;  descriptive;  compared,  pos.  fine,  comp.  finer,  sup. 
finest;  positive  degree,  and  belongs  to  "intellect."    Eule  XII. 

III.  "The  first  two  engravings  are  American  harvest  scenes." 

The  ...  is  an  adjective;  definitive;  definite  article;  it  can  not  be 
compared,  and  belongs  to  "  engravings."     Eule  XII. 


ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES.  53 

First  »  ►  .  is  an  adjective;  definitive;  numeral;  it  denotes  number: 
ordinal;  it  marks  the  position  of  an  object  in  a  series:  it 
can  not  be  compared,  and  belongs  to  "engravings."  Kule 
XII. 

Two  ...  is  an  adjective;  definitive;  numeral;  cardinal;  it  denotes  the 
number  of  objects:  it  can  not  be  compared,  and  belongs 
to  "engravings."     Kule  XII. 

American  is  an  adjective;  descriptive;  it  can  not  be  compared,  and 
belongs  to  "  scenes."    Rule  XII. 

Harvest  .  is  an  adjective;  descriptive;  it  can  not  be  compared,  and 
belongs  to  "scenes."    Eule  XII. 

IV.  " The  weather  is  pleasant" 

Pleasant  .  is  an  adjective;  descriptive;  compared,  pos.  pleasant,  comp. 
more  pleasant;  sup.  most  pleasant:  positive  degree,  *nd  be- 
longs to  "  weather."    Eule  XII. 


55.  EXERCISES. 

Parse  the  nouns  and  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  A  loud  report  was  heard.  2.  Fearful  storms  sweep  over 
these  beautiful  islands.  3.  Life  is  but  a  vapor.  4,  These  walks 
are  quiet  and  secluded.  5.  I  feel  sad  and  lonely.  6,  The 
fields  look  green.  7.  He  took  a  twofold  view  of  the  subject. 
8.  Either  road  leads  to  town.  9.  Each  soldier  was  a  host  in 
himself.  10.  Both  horses  are  lame.  11.  Such  a  law  is  a  dis- 
grace to  any  state.  12.  Repeat  the  first  four  lines  in  concert. 
13.  "My  drowsy  powers,  why  sleep  ye  so?"  14.  "One  story  is 
good  until  another  is  told."  15.  The  Australian  gold-fields  are 
very  extensive.     16.  The  floor  was  formed  of  six-inch  boards. 

17.  None  think  the  great  unhappy  but  the  great.  —  Young. 

18.  Our  birth  is  but   a  sleep   and  a  forgetting. — Wordsworth. 

19.  To  make  a  long  story  short,  the  company  broke  up  and 
returned  to  the  more  important  concerns  of  the  election. — 
Irving.      20.    Grim-visaged    war    hath    smoothed    his   wrinkled 


54  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

front. — Shakespeare.  21.  For  nine  long  years,  session  after 
session,  we  have  been  lashed  round  and  round  this  miser- 
able circle  of  occasional  arguments  and  miserable  expedi- 
ents.— Burke.  22.  Dim  with  the  mist  of  years,  gray  flits  the 
shade  of  power. — Byron. 

23.  Can  storied  urn,  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath? — Gray. 

24.  "With  secret  course,  which  no  loud  storms  annoy, 
Glides  the  smooth  current  of  domestic  joy. — Goldsmith. 

25.  My  opening  eyes  with  rapture  see 
The  dawn  of  this  returning  day. 

26.  With  many  a  weary  step,  and  many  a  groan, 

Up  the  high  hill  he  heaves  a  huge  round  stone. — Pope. 

53.   CAUTIONS. 

Caution  I. — Do  not  use  a  before  vocals,  or  an  before 
sub  vocals  and  aspirates. 

Ex. — 1.  An  hundred  cents  make  one  dollar.  2.  Mr.  Perry  is  an 
humorous  person.  3.  She  is  an  heroine.  4.  We  traveled  through  a 
open  country.  5.  We  are  now  an  united  people.  6.  That  is  a  his- 
torical fact.  (Use  an  before  h  when  the  following  syllable  is  ac- 
cented.) 

Caution  II. — Omit  the  article  before  a  word  used  as  a 
title  or  as  a  mere  name. 

Ex. — 1.  A  rascal  formerly  meant  a  servant.  2.  He  is  a  better 
mechanic  than  a  sailor.  3.  They  gave  him  the  title  of  a  duke. 
4.  We  shall  vote  for  Mr.  Webster  as  a  senator.  5.  What  kind  of 
a  man  is  he  ?    6.  I  have  a  sort  of  a  misgiving  about  it. 

Caution  III. — Observe  that  the  denotes  a  particular 
one,  or  is  used  to  distinguish  one  class  or  species  from 
another,  and  that  a  denotes  one,  but  not  a  particular 
one. 

Ex.— 1.  The  dime  is  the  tenth  part  of  the  dollar.  2.  An  eagle 
is  the  bird  of  prey.  3.  A  telephone  is  a  modern  invention.  4.  The 
subject  of  his  lecture  was  a  steam  engine.  5.  A  lion  is  the  king  of 
beasts.     6.  A  horse  which  you  saw  belongs  to  me. 


ETYMOLOGY— ADJECTIVES.  55 

Caution  IV. — Do  not  use  them  for  those,  this  here  for 
this,  or  that  'ere  for  that. 

Ex.— 1.  He  bought  ten  of  them  horses.  2.  I  do  not  like  this 
here  weather.  3.  What  have  you  done  with  that  'ere  umbrella? 
4.  Did  you  put  them  books  on  that  'ere  table?  5.  I  wish  you 
would  write  them  rules  on  the  blackboard. 

Caution  V. — Avoid  double  comparatives  and  super- 
latives. 

Ex.— 1.  He  seems  more  cheerfuller  to-day.  2.  He  is  the  most 
miserablest  man  I  ever  saw.  3.  More  sharper  than  a  serpent's  tooth 
is  vile  ingratitude.  4.  That  is  far  more  preferable  than  to  be  im- 
prisoned. 5.  Worser  evils  than  poverty  can  be  imagined.  6.  "  This 
was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all." 

Caution  VI. — In  most  constructions,  place  ordinal  ad- 
jectives before  cardinals. 

Ex. — 1.  Sing  the  two  first  and  the  three  last  verses.  2.  I  built 
the  five  first  houses  on  that  street.  3.  Repeat  the  three  first  rules. 
4.  You  may  have  cherries  on  the  two  first  trees  in  the  three  first 
rows. 

Caution  VII. — Do  not  use  adverbs  as  adjectives. 

Ex. — 1.  We  have  arrived  safely.  2.  I  feel  badly  this  morning. 
3.  The  country  looks  beautifully  in  June.  4.  Things  now  look 
more  favorably.  5.  This  rose  smells  sweetly.  6.  The  relative  should 
be  placed  as  nearly  as  possible  to  its  antecedent. 

Caution  VIII. — Use  such  adjectives  as  express  the  ex- 
act meaning  intended. 

Ex.— 1.  I  will  sell  either  of  the  four  boats  for  ten  dollars. 
2.  Neither  of  my  three  brothers  went  to  college.  3.  He  paid  all  of 
the  laborers  two  dollars  a  day.  4.  None  of  the  two  horses  pleases 
me.  5.  They  worship  both  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars.  6.  Every 
county  is  incident  to  very  late  frosts.  7.  Such  as  desire  may  remain. 
8.  There  were  not  fewer  than  twenty  tons  of  sugar  in  the  warehouse 
when  it  was  burned.  9.  There  are  less  boys  in  school  now  than 
formerly. 


56  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


THE   PRONOUN 


57.   ORAL  LESSON. 

Notice  what  I  write:  "John  took  John's  hat,  and  put  John's 
hat  on  John's  desk.':  Do  you  think  this  is  a  correct  sentence? 
Ans. — No,  sir,  we  do  not.  What  words  are  unnecessarily  re- 
peated? Ans. — "John"  and  "hat."  Write  the  sentence  on 
your  slates  as  you  think  it  should  be  written.  Sarah,  you 
may  read  what  you  have  written.  (Sarah  reads  "John  took 
his  hat,  and  put  it  on  his  desk."  The  teacher  writes  it  on 
the  blackboard.)  Now,  the  words  used  in  the  place  of  "John" 
and  "hat"  are  called  Pronouns,  which  means  "instead  of  nouns." 
What  shall  we  call  all  words  used  instead  of  nouns?  Ans. — 
Pronouns. 

I  will  write  again:  "I  write,  you  read,  but  he  whispers." 
What  are  the  words  UI,"  "you,"  and  "he"?  Ans. — Pronouns. 
Why?  Ans. — Because  they  are  used  instead  of  nouns.  What 
person  is  "I"?  Ans. — First  person,  because  it  stands  for  the 
person  speaking.  What  person  is  "you"?  Ans. — Second  person, 
because  it  stands  for  the  person  spoken  to.  What  person  is 
"he?"  Ans. — Third  person,  because  it  stands  for  the  person 
spoken  of.  Those  words  which  show  by  their  form  the  person 
of  the  nouns  they  represent  are  called  Personal  Pronouns.  What 
kind  of  pronouns  are  these  words?    Ans. — Personal  Pronouns. 

Write  this  sentence :  "  The  man  who  was  with  me  is  a 
lawyer."  What  is  "me"?  Ans. — A  pronoun,  What  other 
pronoun  is  there  in  the  sentence?  Ans. — "Who."  That  is 
right — and  what  word  does  "  who  "  stand  for  ?  Ans. — Man. 
But  "who"  can  be  used  to  represent  the  first,  second,  or  third 
person;  as,  "I  who  speak  to  you;"  "You  who  listen;"  "He 
who  whispers."  It  does  not  change  its  form  to  denote  per- 
son, but  relates  to  some  noun,  and  must  be  of  the  same  per- 
son and  number  as  the  noun  to  which  it  relates.  It  is  there- 
fore called  a  Relative  Pronoun.  What  shall  we  call  all  simi- 
lar words?    Ans. — Relative  Pronouns. 

Write  this  sentence:  "Who  has  lost  a  pencil?"  The  word 
"who  '  is  here  used  in  asking  a  question.     We  will  call  it  an 


ETYMOLOGY— PKONOUNS.  57 

Interrogative  Pronoun.     What  shall  we  call  those  pronouns  which 
are  used  in  a  similar  manner?     Ans. — Interrogative  Pronouns. 

Write  this  sentence:  "That  book  is  mine."  What  two 
words  can  I  use  instead  of  "  mine  ? "  Ans. — "  My  book." 
"Mine,"  then,  stands  for  both  the  possessor  and  the  thing 
possessed.  We  will  call  it  a  Possessive  Pronoun.  What  shall 
we  call  all  words  used  in  a  similar  manner?  Ans. — Posses- 
sive Pronouns. 

58.   DEFINITION. 

1.  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun;  as, 
his  book,  my  house;  "Whom  did  you  see?" 

2.  The  Antecedent  of  a  pronoun  is  the  noun,  or 
equivalent  expression,  instead  of  which  the  pronoun  is 
used.  It  usually  precedes,  but  sometimes  follows,  the 
pronoun. 

Ex. — "  The  poor  widow  lost  her  only  son."  Here  "  widow  "  is  the 
antecedent  of  "her."  "True  to  his  flag,  the  soldier  braved  even 
death."    "Soldier"  is  the  antecedent  of  "his." 

3.  The  Antecedent  may  be  a  noun,  a  different  pro- 
noun, a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

Ex. — "A  pupil  that  is  studious  will  learn."  "  Pupil "  is  the  ante- 
cedent of  "that."  "He  who  runs  may  read."  "He"  is  the  anteced- 
ent of  "  who."  "  He  desired  to  pray,  but  it  was  denied  him."  "  To 
pray  "  is  the  antecedent  of  "  it."  "He  has  squandered  his  money,  and 
he  now  regrets  it."  "  He  has  squandered  his  money "  is  the  ante- 
cedent of  "it." 

4.  The  Antecedent  may  be  omitted;  in  which  case  it 

is  said  to  be  understood. 

Ex. — "  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash."  "  The  person,"  or  "  he," 
understood,  is  the  antecedent  of  "who." 

59.    PROPERTIES. 

1.  The  Properties  of  a  pronoun  are  Gender,  Person, 
Number,  and  Case. 


58  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

2.  The  gender,  person,  and  number  of  a  pronoun  are 
always  the  same  as  those  of  its  antecedent,  but  its  case 
depends  upon  the  construction  of  the  clause  in  which  it 
is  found. 


60.   GLASSES. 

Pronouns  are  divided  into  four  classes:  Personal,  Pos- 
sessive, Relative,  and  Interrogative. 


61.   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 

1.  Personal  Pronouns  both  represent  nouns  and  show 
by  their  form  whether  they  are  of  the  first,  second,  or 
third  person.     They  are  either  Simple  or  Compound. 

2.  The  Simple  Personal  Pronouns  are  i",  thou,  he,  she, 
and  it,  with  their  declined  forms,  we,  our,  us,  my,  mine, 
ye,  you,  your,  thy,  thine,  thee,  his,  him,  her,  its,  they, 
their,   them. 

3.  The  Compound  Personal  Pronouns  are  formed  by 
adding  self  or  selves  to  some  form  of  the  Simple  Person- 
als; as,  myself,  yourselves,  himself,  themselves. 


62.  DECLENSION. 

1.  The   Simple    Personal    Pronouns   are   declined  as 
follows : 


FIRST  PERSON. 

Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 

Singular. 

I, 

My  or  mine, 
Me. 

,        Plural. 
Nom.    We, 
Poss.     Our, 
Obj.      Us. 

ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS. 


59 


SECOND      PERSON, 


Singular.  Plural. 

Norn.     Thou,  Ye, 

Poss.     Thy  or  thine,  Your, 

Obj.      Thee,  You. 


Singular.         Plural. 

Norn.     You,  You, 

Poss.     Your,  Your, 

Obj.       You,  You. 


THIRD     PERSON. 


Singular. 

MAS.         FEM.  NEUT. 

Norn.    He,        She,  It, 

Poss.     His,       Her,  Its, 

Obj.      Him,     Her,  It. 


Plural 

NEUT.  OR  COM 

Norn.  They, 
Poss.  Their, 
Obj.      Them. 


2.  The  Compound  Personal  Pronouns  are  declined  as 
follows : 


FIRST     PERSON. 


Singular. 
Norn,  and  Obj.     Myself. 


Plural. 
Nam.  and  Obj.     Ourselves. 


SECOND    PERSON. 


Singular.  Plural. 

Norn,  and  Obj.  Thyself  or  Yourself.   I       Norn,  and  Obj.     Yourselves. 


THIRD     PERSON. 

Singular. 


MAS.,  FEM.,  AND  NEUT, 

Himself, 
Nam.  and  Obj.  -(    Herself, 
Itself. 


Plural. 


Norn,  and  Obj.    Themselves. 


GENERAL    REMARKS. 


1.  Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used  before  words  commenc- 
ing with  a  vowel  sound,  in  preference  to  my  and  thy.  They 
are  still  used  thus  in  poetry;  as,  "  Thine  eyes  I  see  thee  raise." 


60  ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 

2.  Thou,  thy,  thine,  thee,  thyself,  and  ye,  though  used  in  the 
Bible,  and  other  sacred  writings,  are  now  seldom  used  except 
in  poetry  and  in  solemn  style.  They  may  be  regarded  as 
antiquated  forms.  You,  your,  yours,  and  yourself  are  now  pre- 
ferred. 

3.  You,  originally  plural,  and  still  requiring  a  verb  in  the 
plural  number,  is  used  to  represent  singular  as  well  as  plural 
nouns. 

4.  We  is  often  used  in  place  of  I,  in  royal  proclamations, 
editorials,  and  when  the  speaker  or  writer  wishes  to  avoid 
the  appearance  of  egotism ;  as,  "  We,  George  III.,  King  of 
Great  Britain  and  Ireland,  do  proclaim,"  etc.  "  We  formerly 
thought  differently,  but  have  changed  our  mind." 

5.  It  is  sometimes  used  in  the  nominative  without  refer- 
ring to  any  particular  antecedent;  and  in  the  objective  for 
euphony  alone;  as,  "It  thunders;"  "It  seems  to  me;"  "It  is 
a  true  saying;"  "Come  and  trip  it  on  the  green." 

6.  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  used  in  the  nom- 
inative and  objective  cases  only.  To  express  emphatic  dis- 
tinction in  the  possessive  case,  the  word  own  is  used  instead 
of  self  or  selves ;  as,  "  Let  every  pupil  use  his  own  book ; " 
"Successful  merchants  mind  their  own  business,  not  that  of 
their  neighbors." 

7.  The  English  language  being  destitute  of  a  pronoun  of 
the  third  person  singular  and  common  gender,  usage  has  sane 
tioned  the  employment  of  the  masculine  forms  he,  his,  him, 
for  that  purpose;  as,  in  speaking  of  scholars  generally,  we 
say,  "A  thorough  scholar  studies  his  lesson  carefully." 

8.  "When  reference  is  made  to  an  assemblage  containing 
males  only,  or  females  only,  the  masculine  or  feminine  forms 
should  be  used,  as  the  case  may  require. 

9.  When  pronouns  of  different  persons  are  used,  the  second 
should  precede  the  third,  and  the  third  the  Jirst;  as,  "  You, 
and  he,  and  I  were  boys  together0" 


ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS.  61 

63.  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 

1.  A  pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Personal,  and  why? 

3.  Simple  or  Compound. 

4.  What  is  its  antecedent? 

5.  Gender,  person,  and  number?    Rule. 

6.  Decline  it. 

7.  Case,  and  why? 

8.  Rule. 


64.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING. 


I.   "7  have  seen  him"* 

I is  a  pronoun;  personal;  it  shows  by  its  form  whether  it 

is  of  the  first,  second,  or  third  person:  simple;  its  ante- 
cedent is  the  name,  understood,  of  the  person  speaking: 

gender,  first  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its 

antecedent:  Rule  IX.  "Pronouns  must  agree  with  their 
antecedents  in  gender,  person,  and  number ; "  declined, 
singular,  nom.  I,  poss.  my,  obj.  me;  plural,  nom.  we,  poss. 
our,  obj.  us:  nominative  case.    Rule  L 

Him  ....  is  a  pronoun;  personal;  simple;  its  antecedent  is  the 
name,  understood,  of  the  person  spoken  of:  masculine 
gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its 
antecedent:  Rule  IX:  declined,  sing.,  nom  he,  poss.  his, 
obj.  him;  plural,  nom.  they,  poss.  their,  obj.  them:  objective 
case.    Rule  VI 


II.  "James,  lend  me  your  book." 

Me  .  .  .  .  is  a  pronoun;  personal;  simple;  its  antecedent  is  the 
name,  understood,  of  the  speaker: gender,  first  per- 
son, singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  antecedent:  Rule 
IX:  decline  it;  objective  case,  it  is  the  indirect  object  of 
the  transitive  verb  "  lend."     Rule  VI. 


62  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


III.  "The  soldiers  helped  themselves." 

Themselves  is  a  pronoun;  compound  personal;  it  is  formed  by  adding 
selves  to  one  of  the  declined  forms  of  a  simple  personal : 
its  antecedent  is  "soldiers:"  masculine  gender,  third  per- 
son, plural  number,  to  agree  with  its  antecedent:  Kule 
IX:  decline  it:  objective  case,  it  is  the  object  of  the  transi- 
tive verb  "helped."    Rule  VI. 


IV.  "I,  myself,  heard  him  say  so." 

Myself  ...  is  a  pronoun;  compound  personal;  its  antecedent  is  the 
name,  understood,  of  the  speaker:  gender,  first  per- 
son, singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  antecedent:  Rule 
IX:  decline  it:  nominative  case,  in  apposition,  with  "I." 
Rule  IV. 


65.  EXERCISES. 


Parse  the  nouns,  personal  pronouns,  and  adjectives  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  He  and  I  attend  the  same  school.  2.  She  gave  her  sister 
a  new  book.  3.  Have  you  seen  him  to-day?  4.  I  saw  it  with 
my  own  eyes.  5.  You,  yourself,  told  me  so.  6.  The  wicked 
is  snared  in  the  work  of  his  own  hands.  7.  I  bought  the 
book,  and  read  it.  8.  They  live  in  our  house.  9.  I  see  them 
on  their  winding  way.  10.  For  we  dare  not  make  ourselves 
of  the  number,  or  compare  ourselves  with  some  that  com- 
mend themselves;  but  they,  measuring  themselves  by  them- 
selves, and  comparing  themselves  among  themselves,  are  not 
wise. 

11.  My  country,  't  is  of  thee, 
Sweet  land  of  liberty, 

Of  thee,  I  sing. 

12.  Thou  great  Instructor,  lest  I  stray, 
Teach  thou  my  erring  feet  thy  way. 


ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS.  63 


e6.   POSSESSIVE   PRONOUNS, 

1.  Possessive  Pronouns  are  words  used  to  represent 
both  the  possessor  and  the  thing  possessed.  They  are: 
mine,  thine,  his,  hers,  ours,  yours,  theirs. 

2.  To  denote  emphatic  distinction,  my  own  is  used  for 
mine,  his  own  for  his,  thy  own  for  thine,  our  own  for 
ours,  your  own  for  yours,  their  own  for  theirs. 

Ex. — "  This  book  is  my  own ;  "  "  Stand,  the  ground's  your  own, 
my  braves!"     "Do  not  borrow  or  lend  pencils:  each  scholar  should 

have  one  of  his  own" 

» 

Rem. — Two  sets  of  models  are  given  for  parsing  Possessive 
Pronouns.  The  first  method  is  to  be  preferred  when  the  pro- 
noun can  not  be  separated  into  two  words,  one  being  a  per- 
sonal pronoun,  the  other  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed. 
Both  methods  are  sanctioned  by  good  authorities. 

67.  ORDER  OP  PARSING. 

1.  A  pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Possessive,  and  why? 

3.  What  is  its  antecedent? 

4.  Gender,  person,  and  number,  and  why?    Rule. 

5.  Case,  and  why?    Rule. 

68.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING-. 

I.    "That  book  is   hers,   not  yours." 

FIRST    METHOD. 

Hers  ...  is  a  pronoun;  possessive;  it  represents  both  the  possessor 
and  the  thing  possessed ;  its  antecedent  is  "  book ; n  neuter 
gender,  third  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its 
antecedent:  Rule  IX:  nominative  case,  it  is  used  as  the 
predicate  of  the  proposition,  "That  book  is  hers:"  Rule 
II. 

Yours.  .  .  is  parsed  in  a  similar  manner;  equivalent  to  "your  book." 


64  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

SECOND    METHOD. 

Hers  ...  is  a  pronoun;  possessive;  it  is  equivalent  to  "her  book." 
Parse  "  her "  as  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  possessive 
case,  according  to  Kule  III,  and  "book"  as  predicate- 
nominative,  according  to  Rule  II. 

II.    "The   ground's  your  own." 

FIRST    METHOD. 

If  our  Own  is  &  pronoun;  possessive;  its  antecedent  is  "ground:"  neuter 
gender,  third  person,  singular  number ;  nominative  case;  it  is 
used  as  the  predicate  of  the  proposition,  "The  ground's 
your  own."    Rule  II. 

SECOND    METHOD.        * 

Your  own  is  a  pronoun;  possessive;  it  is  equivalent  to  "your  ground." 
Parse  "your"  as  a  personal  pronoun  in  the  possessive 
case,  according  to  Rule  III,  and  "ground"  as  the  predi- 
cate-nominative, according  to  Rule  IL 


69.    EXERCISES. 

Parse   the  possessive  pronouns  in    the  following   sentences : 

1.  The  farm  is  neither  his  nor  theirs.  2.  Is  that  horse  of 
yours  lame  yet?  3.  I  did  not  hear  that  lecture  of  yours  last 
evening.  4.  He  is  an  old  friend  of  ours.  5.  This  book  is 
not  mine;  it  must  be  his  or  hers.  6.  That  carriage  of  theirs 
is  a  very  fine  one.     7.  Friend  of  mine,  why  so  sad? 


70.   RELATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

1.  A  Relative  Pronoun  is  used  to  represent  a  preced- 
ing word  or  phrase,  called  its  antecedent,  to  which  it 
joins  a  limiting  clause;  as,  "The  man  whom  you  saw  is 
my  father." 

Rem.  I. — The  antecedent  is  a  word  or  phrase  on  which  the 
relative  clause  depends.  It  may  be  either  a  definite  or  an 
indefinite  object.  When  the  object  is  indefinite,  the  relative 
clause  stands  alone;  as,  "Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash." 


ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS.  65 

Rem.  2. — The  difference  between  personal  and  relative  pro- 
nouns is  shown  by  the  following  distinctions :  1.  Personal 
pronouns  have  a  distinct  form  for  each  grammatical  person; 
as,  first  person,  I;  second  person,  thou  or  you ;  third  per- 
son, he,  she,  or  it :  the  relatives  do  not  change  their  form 
for  person.  2.  A  personal  pronoun  may  be  the  subject  of 
an  independent  sentence;  as,  "He  is  well:"  a  relative  can 
never  be  thus  used;  it  is  always  found  in  a  dependent  clause; 
as,  "Laws  which  are  unjust  should  be  repealed." 

Rem.  3. — Relatives  serve  two  purposes  in  a  sentence;  one, 
to  represent  nouns  in  any  relation;  the  other,  to  join  a  lim- 
iting clause  to  the  antecedent.  The  first  is  a  pronominal,  the 
second,  a  conjunctive  use. 

2.  Relative  pronouns  are  either  Simple  or  Compound. 

3.  The  Simple  Relatives  are  who,  used  to  represent 
persons ;  which  and  what,  to  represent  things ;  that,  to 
represent  both  persons  and  things;  and  as,  to  take  the 
place  of  who,  which,  or  that,  after  such,  many,  and  same. 

Rem.  I. —  What  is  sometimes  used  as  a  definitive  adjective 
as  well  as  a  relative,  in  the  same  sentence:  in  which  case 
it  is  placed  before  the  noun  it  limits;  as,  "I  send  you  what 
money  I  have,"  i.  e.,  "I  send  you  the  money  which  I  have." 
When  the  noun  it  limits  is  understood,  what  takes  its  place, 
and  should  be  parsed,  first  as  a  pronominal  adjective,  and 
secondly  as  a  relative. 

Rem.  2. — That  is  a  relative  when  who,  whom,  or  which  can 
be  substituted  for  it;  as,  "He  that  [who']  is  slow  to  wrath, 
is  of  great  understanding."  It  is  a  pronominal  adjective  when 
it  immediately  precedes  a  noun,  expressed  or  understood; 
as,  "That  book  is  yours;"  "I  did  not  say  that.11  It  is  a  con- 
junction when  it  joins  a  dependent  clause  to  its  principal; 
as,  "I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth." 

Rem.  3. —  What,  when  a  relative,  can  be  changed  into  that 
which,  or  the  thing  which,  and  is  called  a  double  relative;  as, 
"Tell  me  what  [that  which']  you  know;"  "I  got  what  [the  thing 
which]  I  desired."  That,  or  the  thing,  should  be  parsed  as 
the  antecedent  part  of  what,  and  which  as  the  relative.  The 
H.  G.-6. 


QQ  ENGLISH  GKAMMAE. 

antecedent  part,  that,  is  usually  a  pronominal  adjective,  either 
limiting  a  noun  expressed,  or  representing  it  understood. 

Rem.  4. — Besides  being  a  relative,  what  may  be  an  interroga- 
tive pronoun;  as,  "What  did  you  say?" — a  pronominal  adjective ; 
as,  "What  book  have  you?" — an  interjection;  as,  "What!  is  thy 
servant  a  dog,  that  he  should  do  this?" — an  adverb;  as.  "What 
[partly]  by  force,  and  what  by  fraud,  he  secures  his  ends." 

71.   DECLENSION. 


Singular  and  Plural. 

Singular  and  Plural. 

Norn.            Who, 

Nom.            Which, 

Poss.             Whose, 

Poss,             Whose, 

Obj.              Whom. 

Obj.             Which. 

The  Compound  Relatives  are  formed  by  adding  ever, 
so,  and  soever  to  the  simple  relatives.  They  are:  who- 
ever, whoso,  whosoever,  whichever,  whichsoever,  whatever, 
and  whatsoever. 

Rem. —  Whoever,  whoso,  and  whosoever,  are  equivalent  to  he 
who,  or  any  one  who;  as,  "Whoever  studies  will  learn,"  i.  e.,  "Any 
one  who  studies  will  learn."  Whichever  and  whichsoever  are  equiv- 
alent to  any  which;  as,  "Whichever  way  you  may  take  will  lead 
to  the  city,"  i.  e.,  "Any  way  which  you  may  take,"  etc.  What- 
ever and  whatsoever  are  equivalent  to  any  thing  which ;  as,  "I  am 
pleased  with  whatever  you  may  do,"  i.  e.,  "I  am  pleased  with 
any  thing  which  you  may  do."  Compound  relatives  are  inde- 
clinable, and  should   be  parsed  like  the  simple  relative  what, 

72.   ORDER  OF  PARSING. 

1.  A  Pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Relative,  and  why? 

3.  Name  its  antecedent. 

4.  Simple  or  Compound? 

5.  Gender,  person,  and  number,  and  why?    Rule. 

6.  Decline  it. 

7.  Case,  and  Rule. 


ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS.  67 


73.   MODELS  FOR  PARSING-. 

I.  "A  man  toho  is  industrious  will  prosper." 

Who  ...  is  a  pronoun ;  relative;  it  represents  a  preceding  word  or 
phrase,  to  which  it  joins  a  limiting  clause:  its  antecedent 
is  "man:"  simple:  masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular 
number,  to  agree  with  its  antecedent:  Rule  IX:  nominative 
case;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  proposi- 
tion "  who  is  industrious :  "   Rule  I. 


II.  "I  am  he  whom  ye  seek." 

Whom  .  .  is  a  pronoun;  relative;  its  antecedent  is  "he:"  simple: 
masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  number:  Rule  IX: 
objective  case;  it  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
"seek:"   Rule  VI. 


III.  "Happy  is  the  man  that  findeth  wisdom." 

That  ...  is  a  pronoun;  relative;  its  antecedent  is  "man:"  simple: 
masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  number:  Rule  IX: 
nominative  case;  it  is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  prop- 
osition "That  findeth  wisdom:"  Rule  I. 


IV.  "  The  horse  which  you  sold  me  is  lame." 

Which  .  .  is  a  pronoun;  relative;  its  antecedent  is  "horse:"  simple: 
masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular  number;  Rule  IX: 
objective  case;  it  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb 
"sold:"  Rule  VI. 


V.  "I  remember  what  you  said." 

What.  .  .  is  a  pronoun;  relative;  it  is  a  double  relative,  equivalent  to 
that  which — "  that  "  being  the  antecedent  part,  and  "  tvhich," 
the  relative.  Parse  "that"  as  a  "pronominal  adjective 
used  as  a  noun,"  in  the  objective  case  after  "remember." 

Which  .  .  is  a  'pronoun;  relative;  its  antecedent  is  "that:"  neuter 
gender,  third  person,  singular  number ;  objective  case;  object 
of  the  transitive  verb  "said:"   Rule  VI. 


68  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

VI.  "That  is  the  man  whose  house  we  occupy." 

Whose.  .  is  a  'pronoun;  relative;  its  antecedent  is  "man:"  masculine 
gender,  third  person,  singular  number;  Rule  IX:  possessive 
case;  modifies  "house:"   Rule  III. 

VII.  "Whoever  studies  will  learn." 

Whoever  is  a  pronoun;  relative;  compound;  it  is  equivalent  to  he 
who,  or  any  one  who — "  he  "  being  the  antecedent  part,  and 
" who"  the  relative.  Parse  "he"  as  a  personal  pronoun, 
subject  of  "  will  learn,"  or  "  one  "  as  a  "  pronominal  ad- 
jective used  as  a  noun,"  subject  of  "  will  learn,"  and 
"who"  as  a  relative,  by  preceding  models. 

VIII.  "Whatever  purines,  sanctifies." 

Whatever  is  a  pronoun;  relative;  compound;  it  is  equivalent  to  that 
which.  Parse  "that"  and  "which"  according  to  Model  V — 
"that"  being  the  subject  of  "sanctifies;"  "which"  of  "pu- 
rifies." 

IX.  "  Whoso  keepetn  the  law  is  a  wise  son." 

WhOSO.  .  is  a  pronoun;  relative;  compound;  it  is  equivalent  to  he 
who,  or  any  one  who.     Parse  according  to  Model  VII. 

X.  "As  many  as  came  were  baptized." 

As  ....  is  a  pronoun;  relative;  its  antecedent  is  "many:"  simple: 
common  gender,  third  person,  plural  number;  Rule  IX:  nom- 
inative case;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  subordinate 
proposition  "as  came,"  i.  e.,  "who  came;"   Rule  I. 


74.   EXERCISES. 

Parse  the  relative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Those  who  sow  will  reap.  2.  He  that  hateth,  dissem- 
bleth  with  his  lips.  3.  They  that  forsake  the  law,  praise  the 
wicked;  but  such  as  keep  the  law,  contend  with  them.  4. 
There  is  no  class  of  persons  that  I  dislike  so  much  as  those 
who  slander  their  neighbors.  5.  The  house  which  you  admire 
so  much,  belongs  to  the  man  whom  we  see  yonder. 


ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS.  69 

6.  Whatever  is,  is  right.  7.  Whatsoever  ye  shall  ask  in  my 
name,  that  will  I  do.  8.  He  will  do  what  is  right.  9.  This 
is  the  dog  that  worried  the  cat  that  killed  the  rat  that  ate 
the  malt  that  lay  in  the  house  that  Jack  built.  10.  A  kind 
boy  avoids  doing  whatever  injures  others. 


75     INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

1.  The  Interrogative  Pronouns  are  who,  which,  and 
what,  when  used  in  asking  questions;  as,  "Who  goes 
there?"  "Which  is  yours?"  "What  did  you  say?" 

2.  The  Subsequent  of  an  Interrogative  Pronoun  is 
that  part  of  the  answer  which  is  represented  by  it.  An 
Interrogative  must  agree  with  its  subsequent  in  gender, 
person,  and  number. 

Rem.  I. — When  a  definite  object  is  referred  to,  which  and 
what  are  pronominal  adjectives,  limiting  the  name  of  the  ob- 
ject inquired  for;  as,  "  Which  lesson  shall  we  learn?"  "What 
book  shall  we  study?"  When  an  indefinite  object  is  referred 
to,  the  interrogative  takes  its  place;  as,  "Which  is  mine?" 
11  What  say  you?" 

Rem.  2. — The  interrogatives  who  and  which  are  declined  like 
relative  pronouns. 

Rem.  3. — Apply  Eule  IX  in  parsing  interrogatives,  changing 
"antecedents"  to  "subsequents." 


76.  ORDER  OP  PARSING. 

1.  A -pronoun,  and  why? 

2.  Interrogative,  and  why? 

3.  Name  its  subsequent,  if  expressed. 

4.  Gender,  person,  and  number.     Rule. 

5.  Decline  it. 

6.  Case,  and  why?    Rule. 


70  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


77.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING-. 

I.  "Who  goes  there?" 

Who  .  is  a  'pronoun;  interrogative;  it  is  used  in  asking  a  question: 
its  subsequent  is  indefinite:  gender  and  'person  indeterminate: 
singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  subsequent:  Rule  IX:  nom- 
inative case;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence  "Who 
goes  there?"    Rule  I. 

II.  "Which  is  yours?" — The  large  one. 

Which  is  a  pronoun ;  interrogative ;  its  subsequent  is  "  one : "  neuter 
gender ,  third  person,  singular  number;  Rule  IX:  nominative 
case;  it  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  sentence  "Which  is 
yours?"    Rule  I. 

III.  "What  is  that  man?"— A  blacksmith. 

What  .  is  a  pronoun;  interrogative;  its  subsequent  is  "blacksmith:" 
masculine  genderf  third  person,  singular  number;  Rule  IX ; 
nominative  case;  it  is  used  as  the  predicate  of  the  sentence 
"What  is  that  man?"     Rule  II. 


78.   EXERCISES. 

Parse  the  interrogative  pronouns  in  the  following  sentences . 

1.  Who  saw  the  horse  run?  2.  Whose  house  is  that  on  the 
hill  yonder?  3.  Whom  did  he  call?  — James.  4.  For  whom 
did  he  inquire?  5.  Which  will  you  have,  the  large  or  the 
small  book? 

6.  Whom  did  you  take  me  to  be?  7.  What  shall  I  do?— 
Wait.  8.  What  can  be  more  beautiful  than  that  landscape? 
9.  Which  is  the  lesson?  10.  Who  told  you  how  to  parse 
"what"? 

Parse   the  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns   in   the  following  sen- 
tences : 
1.  Who  is  in   the  garden?— My  father.     2.  I  do  not  know 
who  is  in  the  garden.     3.  Tell  me  what  I  should  do.     4.  What 
vessel  is  that?    5.  Always  seek  for  what  you  need  the  most. 


ETYMOLOGY— PRONOUNS,  71 

6.  "Whose  house  was  burned  last   night? — Mr.    Hubbard's. 

7.  The  boy   closed   the   shutters,  which   darkened   the  room. 

8.  What  is  his  name?     9.  Whoever  enters  here  should  have  a 
pure  heart.     10.  I  gave  all  that  I  had. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  adjectives  in  the  following  sentences: 
1.  Virtue  is  the  condition  of  happiness.  2.  Ye  are  the 
light  of  the  world.  3.  That  garment  is  not  well  made.  4. 
One  ounce  of  gold  is  worth  sixteen  ounces  of  silver.  5.  The 
prayers  of  David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  are  ended.  6.  Every  man 
went  to  his  own  house.  7.  The  army  is  loaded  with  the 
spoils  of  many  nations.  8.  Be  of  the  same  mind  one  toward 
another. 

9.  He  sacrificed  every  thing  he  had  in  the  world:  what 
could  we  ask  more?  10.  Who's  here  so  base  that  would  be  a 
bondman?  11.  I  speak  as  to  wise  men:  judge  ye  what  I  say. 
12.  Liberty  was  theirs  as  men:  without  it  they  did  not  esteem 
themselves  men.  13.  The  death  of  Socrates,  peacefully  philos- 
ophizing with  his  friends,  is  the  most  pleasant  that  could  be 
desired. 

14.  0  Popular  Applause !  what  heart  of  man 

Is  proof  against  thy  sweet,  seducing  charms? 

15.  What  black,  what  ceaseless  cares  besiege  our  state: 
What  strokes  we  feel  from  fancy  and  from  fate. 

16.  Unveil  thy  bosom,  faithful  tomb; 

Take  this  new  treasure  to  thy  trust; 
And  give  these  sacred  relics  room 
To  slumber  in  the  silent  dust. 

17.  Thy  spirit,  Independence,  let  me  share. 

Lord  of  the  lion-heart  and  eagle-eye: 
Thy  steps  I'll  follow  with  my  bosom  bare; 

Nor  heed  the  storm  that  howls  along  the  sky. — Smollett. 

18.  The  gay  will  laugh 
When  thou  art  gone;  the  solemn  brood  of  care 
Plod  on,  and  each  one  as  before  will  chase 
His  favorite  phantom:  yet  all  these  shall  leave 
Their  mirth  and  their  employment,  and  shall  come 
And  make  their  bed  with  thee. — Bryant. 


72  ENGLISH  GRAMMAB. 


79.   CAUTIONS. 

Caution  I. — Do  not  omit  the  subjects  of  declarative 
and  interrogative  sentences. 

Ex. — 1.  Am  sorry  you  can  not  go  with  me.  2.  Hope  you  are 
well.  3.  Came  home  late  last  night.  4.  What  say?  5.  Why  stay 
here?  6.  Going  home  late,  found  the  door  locked.  7.  Read  "Snow 
Bound  ;  "  like  it  very  much. 

Caution  II. — Do  not  omit  the  sign  of  possession  in 
forming  the  possessive  case  of  nouns,  nor  use  it  in  form- 
ing the  possessive  case  of  pronouns. 

Ex. — 1.  Mr.  Arter  sells  boys  hats.  2.  The  girls  bonnets  were 
blown  into  the  lake.  3.  That  house  is  her's.  4.  Frances'  mother  is 
an  actress.  5.  Have  you  seen  Mr.  Pierce'  new  house.  6.  Who's 
horse  ran  away? 

Caution  III. — Do  not  use  the  objective-case  forms  of 
pronouns  as  subjects  or  predicates. 

Ex. — 1.  Him  and  me  study  arithmetic.  2.  It  is  me,  and  not  her, 
who  wishes  to  see  you.  3.  Yon,  and  him,  and  me  were  boys  to- 
gether. 4.  Me  and  the  doctor  were  there,  5.  Did  you  say  it  was 
me  who  broke  the  window? 

Caution  IV. — Do  not  use  "  who  "  as  the  object  of  a 
transitive  verb  or  preposition. 

Ex. — 1.  Who  are  you  talking  to?  2.  Tell  me  who  you  work  for. 
3.  He  is  a  man  who  I  do  not  like.     4.  Who  did  your  sister  marry? 

Caution  V. — Do  not  use  "  which "  as  a  relative  to 
represent  persons,  or  "  who "  to  represent  animals,  chil- 
dren, or  objects  without  life. 

Ex. — 1.  Those  which  are  rich  should  not  be  proud.  2.  The  dog 
whom  you  bought,  was  stolen.  3.  They  have  found  the  child  who 
was  lost.  4.  It  was  old  dog  Hero  who  was  killed.  5.  They  which 
study  will  learn. 


ETYMOLOGY— VEKBS.  73 

Caution  VI. — Do  not  use  improper  forms  of  possessive 
pronouns. 

Ex.— 1.  Is  that  book  your'n  or  her'n?  2.  I  think  it  is  her'n. 
3.  That  book  is  his'n.  4.  He  had  no  team ;  so  he  borrowed  our'n. 
5.  You  did  not  see  his  horses  or  our'n,  did  you? 

Caution  VII. — Avoid  the  use  of  diiferent  kinds  of  pro- 
nouns in  the  same  construction. 

Ex. — 1.  The  boys  lost  my  ax,  so  I  borrowed  thine.  2.  If  you 
will  go,  I  will  pay  thy  expenses.  3.  I  hope  you  will  put  money 
into  thy  purse.  4.  I  will  show  thee  what  we  have,  and  you  may 
take  which  will  please  you.    5.  Learn  thy  lesson,  then  amuse  yourself. 

Caution  VIII. — Do  not  use  a  pronoun  and  its  anteced- 
ents as  subjects  of  the  same  sentence. 

Ex. — 1.  The  girls  they  all  screamed.  2.  Mr.  Snell  he  has  gone 
to  Paris.  3.  The  dogs  they  barked,  and  the  horses  they  ran.  4. 
Many  words  they  darken  speech.    5.  Ella  Jones  she  is  my  classmate. 


THE    VERB. 

80.    ORAL    LESSON. 

The  teacher  writes  on  the  blackboard,  "A  horse  runs,"  and 
asks,  "What  does  the  horse  do?"  Ans. — A  horse  runs.  What 
else  may  a  horse  do?  Ans. — A  horse  trots,  walks,  gallops,  eats, 
drinks,  etc.  Write  these  words  on  your  slates.  Are  they  the 
names  of  things?  Ans. — They  are  not:  they  are  the  names 
of  actions.  What  shall  we  call  them?  Ans. — Action-words.  A 
very  good  name,  but  grammarians  call  them  Verbs. 

W^ite  on  your  slates,  "John  studies."  What  is  the  subject 
of  the  sentence?  Ans. — "John."  What  is  the  predicate? 
Ans. — "Studies."  Does  the  sentence  tell  what  John  studies? 
Ans. — It  does  not.  Write  "grammar"  after  the  verb  "studies." 
The  sentence  now  reads,  "John  studies  grammar."  In  this 
sentence,  the  meaning  of  "studies"  is  completed  by  the  word 
"grammar"  What  element  is  that  word?  Ans. — An  objective 
element. 


74  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 

A  verb  which  requires  an  objective  element  to  complete  its 
meaning,  is  called  a  transitive  verb;  a  verb  which  does  not  re- 
quire an  objective  element  to  complete  its  meaning,  is  called 
an  intransitive  verb.  What  is  "studies"  in  the  sentence  "John 
studies  grammar?"  Ans. — A  transitive  verb.  Why?  Ans. — 
Because  its  meaning  is  completed  by  an  objective  element. 
What  is  "run,"  in  the  sentence  "John  runs?"  Ans. — An 
intransitive  verb.  Why?  Ans. — Because  its  meaning  is  not 
completed  by  an  objective  element. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "The  fields  look  green." 
What  is  the  subject  of  this  sentence?  Ans. — "Fields."  What 
is  the  predicate?  Ans. — "Green."  What  is  the  office  of  the 
word  "look"?  Ans. — It  asserts  the  predicate  "green"  of  the 
subject  "fields."  Correctly  answered.  Its  use  is  copulative; 
and  such  copulative  words  are  called  copulative  verbs.  What  is 
"look"  in  this  sentence?  Ans. — A  copulative  verb.  What  is 
"seems"  in  the  sentence  "He  seems  afraid?"  Ans. — A  cop- 
ulative verb.  Why?  Ans. — Because  it  asserts  the  predicate 
of  the  subject. 

81.   DEFINITION. 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action,  or 
state;  as,  I  am;  George  writes;  The  house  stands. 

Rem. — The  being,  action,  or  state,  may  be  stated  abstractly  or 
represented  as  belonging  to  a  subject;  as,  "To  write]11  "Boys 
write;"  "To  seem;11  "He  seems  discouraged." 

82.   CLASSES  "WITH  RESPECT  TO  USE. 

1.  With  respect  to  their  use,  Verbs  may  be  divided 
into  Copulative,  Transitive,  and  Intransitive. 

2.  A  Copulative  Verb  is  used  to  join  a  predicate  to  a 
subject,  and  to  make  an  assertion;  as,  "Sugar  is  sweet;" 
"  He  seems  honest." 

Rem. — The  copula  to  be  is  the  only  pure  copulative.  The 
verbs  become,  seem,  appear,  stand,  walk,  and  other  verbs  of  mo- 
tion, position,  and  condition,  together  with   the  passive  verbs  is 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  75 

named,  is  called,  is  styled,  is  elected,  is  appointed,  is  constituted,  is 
made,  is  chosen,  is  esteemed,  and  some  others,  are  frequently  used 
as  copulatives. 

Ex. — "  The  road  became  rough ;  "  "  The  men  appeared  cheerful ; " 
"  He  is  styled  the  Czar  of  all  the  Russias ;  "  "  Sir  Walter  Scott  is 
called  the  Wizard  of  the  North ; "  "  Gen.  Washington  was  elected  first 
President  of  the  United  States." 

3.  A  Transitive  Verb  requires  an  object  to  complete 
its  meaning ;  as,  "  The  hunter  killed  a  bear ; "  "  The 
scholar  learned  his  lesson ; "  "  That  house  has  seven 
gables." 

4.  An  Intransitive  Verb  does  not  require  an  object  to 
complete  its  meaning ;  as,  "  Flowers  bloom ;  "  "  Grass 
grows ;  "  "  The  wind  blows  furiously." 

Rem.  I. — The  action  expressed  by  a  transitive  verb  has  refer- 
ence to  some  object  external  to  the  subject,  upon  which  it 
terminates:  the  action  expressed  by  an  intransitive  verb  has  no 
such  reference,  but  affects  the  subject  only.  If  an  object  is 
required  to  complete  its  meaning,  a  verb  is  transitive,  other- 
wise intransitive.  A  verb  in  the  passive  form  is  transitive  if 
its  subject  in  the  passive  voice  can  be  made  its  object  in  the 
active. 

Ex. — "That  boy  studies  algebra."  The  verb  "studies"  is  transi- 
tive, because  its  meaning  is  completed  by  the  object  "  algebra." 
"That  boy  studies"  The  verb  "studies"  is  transitive,  because  some 
word,  as  lesson,  grammar,  etc.,  is  required  to  complete  its  meaning. 
"  The  winds  blow."  The  verb  "  blow "  is  intransitive,  because  the 
action  expressed  by  it  affects  the  subject  only,  and  does  not  re- 
quire the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete  its  meaning.  "The 
letter  was  written  by  me,"  i.  e.,  I  wrote  the  letter.  The  verb  "was 
written"  is  transitive,  because  its  subject  in  the  passive  voice  be- 
comes its  object  in  the  active. 

Rem.  2. — A  verb  which  represents  its  subject  as  causing  to 
do  what  the  verb  expresses,  is  said  to  be  used  in  a  causative 
sense. 

Ex. — "  The  farmer  burns  wood,"  i.  e.,  "  The  farmer  causes  wood  to 
burn"  " The  pirate  sank  the  ship,"  i.  e.,  " The  pirate  caused  the  sink- 
ing of  the  ship."  The  verbs  "  burns "  and  "  sank "  are  used  in  a 
causative  sense. 


76  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

Rem.  3. — Some  verbs  are  transitive  in  one  signification,  and 
intransitive  in  another. 

Ex. — "  It  breaks  my  chain  ;  "  "  Glass  breaks  easily ;  "  "  He  returned 
the  book ;  "  "I  returned  home ;  "  "  The  vessel  ran  the  blockade ; " 
"  The  horses  ran." 

Rem.  4. — An  intransitive  verb  becomes  transitive  when  it 
is  followed  by  an  object  like  itself  in  meaning. 

Ex. — "  He  lives  a  noble  life; "  "  And  he  dreamed  yet  another 
dream ;  "  "  Those  men  are  playing  a  game  of  chess ;  "  "  Grinned  hor- 
ribly a  ghastly  smile." 


83.  CLASSES  WITH  RESPECT  TO  FORM. 

1.  With  respect  to  their  form,  Verbs  are  either  Regu- 
lar or  Irregular. 

2.  A  Regular  Verb  forms  its  past  indicative  and  per- 
fect participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present  indica- 
tive, or  simplest  form  of  the  verb;  as,  love,  love-d, 
love-d;  count,  count-ed,  count-ed. 

3.  An  Irregular  Verb  does  not  form  its  past  indicative 
and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the  present 
indicative;  as,  see,  saw,  seen;  go,  went,  gone. 

84.   PROPERTIES. 

The  Properties  of  Verbs  are  Voice,  Mode,  Tense, 
Number,  and  Person. 

85.  VOICE. 

1.  Voice  is  that  form  of  the  transitive  verb  which 
shows  whether  the  subject  acts  or  is  acted  upon. 

2.  Transitive  Verbs  have  two  voices:  an  Active  and  a 
Passive  Voice. 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  77 

3.  The  Active  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting 
upon  an  object;  as,  "John  struck  James ;"  "The  boy 
was  studying;"  "The  cat  caught  the  mouse." 

4.  The  Passive  Voice  represents  the  subject  as  being 
acted  upon ;  as,  "  James  was  struck  by  John ; "  "  The 
mouse  was  aught;"  "The  lesson  was  studied" 

5.  The  Passive  Voice  is  formed  by  prefixing  some 
form  of  the  neuter  verb  to  be  to  the  perfect  participle 
of  a  transitive  verb. 

Rem.  I. — The  direct  object  of  a  verb  in  the  active  voice  be- 
comes its  subject  in  the  passive. 

Ex. — "  The  boy  shut  the  door "  (active) ;  "  The  door  was  shut  by 
the  boy"  (passive);  "He  saw  the  comet;"  "The  comet  was  seen  by 
the  astronomer." 

Rem.  2. — Certain  verbs  are  sometimes  used,  with  a  passive 
signification,  in  the  active  voice. 

Ex. — "  This  stick  splits  easily ;  "  "  Butter  sells  for  forty  cents ;  " 
" This  ground  plows  well ;  "  " The  stone  breaks  readily ; "  "I  have 
nothing  to  wear;"  "He  has  some  ax  to  grind;"  "He  has  no  money 
to  spend  foolishly;"  "The  house  is  building;"  "Wheat  sells  for  one 
dollar  a  bushel." 

Rem.  3. — A  few  verbs  sometimes  assume  the  passive  form, 
though  used  in  an  active  sense. 

Ex. — "  The  melancholy  days  are  come,"  i.  e.,  have  come ;  "  Babylon 
is  fallen"  i.  e.,  has  fallen ;  " She  is  gone,"  i.  e.,  has  gone ;  " The  hour 
is  arrived,"  i.  e.,  has  arrived ; "  "  He  was  come  now,"  he  said,  "  to  the 
end  of  his  journey." 

Rem.  4. — The  passive  voice  is  used  when  the  agent  is  un- 
known, or  when  we  wish  to.  conceal  it  and  call  attention  to 
the  act  and  its  object  alone;  as,  "The  robbery  was  committed 
(by  some  person  unknown,  or  known  but  not  mentioned)  in 
broad  daylight;"  "This  wall  was  built  to  protect  the  banks  of 
the  river."  When  we  wish  to  make  the  agent  prominent,  the 
active  voice  should  be  used;  as,  "The  escaped  convict  committed 
the  robbery  in  broad  daylight." 


78  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


86.  EXERCISES. 


Tell  ivhich  of  the  verbs,  in  the  following  sentences,  are  in  the  active 
voice,  and  which  in  the  passive : 

1.  Sarah  loves  flowers.  2.  John  was  astonished  at  the  news. 
3.  William  saw  a  meteor.  4.  A  meteor  was  seen.  5.  I  have 
written  a  letter.  6.  That  poem  was  written  by  Saxe.  7.  He 
should  have  waited  longer.  8.  The  heavens  declare  the  glory 
of  God.     9.  He  found  the  money. 


87.  THE  PARTICIPLE. 

1.  A  Participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  par- 
taking of  the  properties  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective  or 
a  noun. 

Rem. — The  participle  is  so  called  from  its  partaking  of  the 
properties  of  a  verb  and  of  an  adjective  or  a  noun.  It  is 
the  attributive  part  of  the  verb,  used  without  assertion.  It 
is  not  a  verb,  consequently  neither  mode  nor  tense  belongs 
to  it.  It  simply  denotes  continuance  or  completion  of  action, 
being,  or  state,  relatively  to  the  time  denoted  by  the  prin- 
cipal verb  of  the  sentence  in  which  it  is  found. 

2.  There  are  three  Participles:  the  Present,  the  Per- 
feet,  and  the  Compound.  The  present  and  the  com- 
pound have  both  an  active  and  a  passive  form  and  use. 
The  perfect  has  an  active  and  a  passive  use. 

3.  The  Present  Participle  denotes  the  continuance  of 
action,  being,  or  state;  as,  loving,  being  loved. 

Rem. — The  present  participle  always  ends  in  ing.  It  may  be 
used  as  an  assumed  attribute,  or  be  affirmed  of  a  subject. 
In  the  sentence,  "Leaning  my  head  upon  my  hand,  I  began 
to  picture  to  myself  the  miseries  of  confinement,"  "leaning" 
depends  upon  or  modifies  "I."  It  is  an  assumed  attribute. 
"In  the  sentence,  "I  was  leaning  my  head  upon  my  hand," 
"leaning"  is  affirmed  of  the  subject  "I."  The  present  par- 
ticiple may  also  be  used: 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  79 

1st.  As  an  adjective;  as,  "Twinkling  stars."  When  thus 
used,  it  is  called  a  participial  adjective;  and  when  it  denotes 
a  quality  rather  than  an  act,  it  usually  admits  of  comparison; 
as,  "A  most  loving  companion." 

2d.  As  a  noun;  as,  "I  am  fond  of  reading.''  "Reading," 
in  this  sentence,  is  a  participial  noun,  and  is  the  object  of  the 
preposition  "of."  By  some  grammarians,  a  participial  noun 
is  called  an  "infinitive  in  ing,"  or  a  "gerund.1' 

3d.  As  a  noun,  with  the  modifications  of  a  verb;  as,  "De- 
scribing a  past  event  as  present,  has  a  fine  effect  in  language." 
In  this  sentence,  the  participial  noun  "describing"  is  modi- 
fied by  "events,"  an  objective  element.  Participial  nouns 
may  also  be  modified  by  adverbs;  as,  "I  am  fond  of  trav- 
eling rapidly."  Here,  "traveling"  is  modified  by  "rapidly," 
an  adverbial  element. 

4.  The  Perfect  Participle  denotes  the  completion  of 
action,  being,  or  state;  as,  seen,  appointed. 

Rem. — This  participle  generally  ends  in  d,  ed,  t,  n,  or  en. 
It  is  frequently  used  as  an  adjective,  but  never  as  a  noun, 
and  is  usually,  but  not  always,  found  in  compound  forms  of 
the  verb. 

Ex. — "  He  died,  loved  by  all ;  "  "  Her  promise,  made  cheerfully, 
was  kept  faithfully;"  "I  have  written  a  letter;"  "You  should  have 
known  better ; "   "  That  house  was  built  in  1780." 

5.  The  Compound  Participle  denotes  the  completion  of 
action,  being,  or  state,  at  or  before  the  time  represented 
by  the  principal  verb;  as,  "Having  written  the  letter,  he 
mailed  it." 

Rem.— This  participle  is  formed  by  placing  having  or  having 
been  before  the  perfect  participle;  as,  "Having  bought  the  horse, 
he  went  home;"  "The  lessons  having  been  recited,  the  school 
was  dismissed."  It  may  be  used  as  a  noun;  as,  "I  am  ac- 
cused of  having  plotted  treason ;  "  "  He  is  charged  with  having 
been  engaged  in  the  slave-trade."  It  is  also  formed  by  placing 
having  been  before  the  present  participle;  as,  "Having  been 
loving." 


80  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


.    88.   EXERCISES. 

Give  the  present,  perfect,  and  compound  participles   of  the  following 
verbs  : 

Rely,  find,  help,  study,  recite,  inquire,  answer,  plow,  culti- 
vate, join,  emulate,  spell,  grow,  paint,  resemble,  hope,  suffer, 
sit,  see,  go,  come,  lay,  arrive,  exhaust,  enjoy,  write,  read,  learn, 
ventilate. 

Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  present  participle. 
Model. — "  Mary  is  studying  her  lesson." 

Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  perfect  participle. 

Models. — "  I  have  learned  my  lesson."  "  The  army,  flushed 
with  victory,  marched  onward." 

Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  present  and  a  perfect  participle. 
Model. — "A  boy  playing  on  the  sea-shore,  found  an  oar  lost 
from  a  boat." 

Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  compound  participle. 

Model. — "  The  notes  having  been  paid,  the  mortgage  was  can- 
celed." 

Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  participial  adjective. 
Model. — "Rolling  stones  gather  no  moss." 

Write  five  sentences,  each  containing  a  participial  noun. 

Models. — "Skating  is  good  exercise."  "  Much  depends  upon 
his  observing  the  rule." 


89.   ORDER  OF  PARSING-. 

1.  A  Participle,  and  why? 

2.  From  what  verb  is  it  derived? 

3.  Present,  perfect,  or  compound,  and  why? 

4.  To  what  does  it  belong? 

5.  Rule. 


ETYMOLOGY— VEEBS.  81 


90.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING-. 

I.  "  I  Heard  the  wolves  howling  in  the  forest." 

Howling is  a  participle:   it  partakes  of   the  properties  of 

a  verb  and  of  an  adjective:  it  is  derived  from 
the  verb  "howl:"  present  participle;  it  denotes 
continuance:  it  belongs  to  "wolves."    Kule  XII. 

II,  "Take  this  letter,  written  by  myself." 

Written    . is    a   participle  :   it   is    derived   from    the   verb 

"write:"  perfect  participle;  it  denotes  completion: 
it  belongs  to  "  letter."    Eule  XII. 

III.  "The  train  having  left,  we  returned  home." 

Having  left is    a  participle:    it    is    derived    from    the   verb 

"  leave : "  compound  participle;  it  denotes  the 
completion  of  an  act  before  the  time  repre- 
sented by  the  principal  verb:  it  belongs  to 
"train"     Rule  XII. 

IV.  "  Their  leader  having  been  killed,  the  robbers  fled." 

Having  been  killed  is  a  participle:  it  is  derived  from  the  verb  "kill." 
compound  participle:  it  belongs  to  "  leader." 
Eule  XII. 

V.  "  Whispering  is  forbidden." 

Whispering is  a  noun;  participial;  it  is  derived  from  the 

verb  "whisper:"  neuter  gender;  third  person; 
singular  number ;  nominative  case.    Eule  I. 


91.  EXERCISES. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  participles  in  the  following 
sentences : 
1.  I   have   heard   the  bells   tolling.     2.  He  saw  the   letter 
opened.     3.  Gambling  is  a  crime.     4.  Boys  like  running,  jump- 
H.  G.-6. 


82  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

ing,  and  skating.  5.  The  vessel  anchored  in  the  bay,  has  lost 
her  sails.  6.  Having  sold  my  farm,  I  shall  remove  to  Iowa. 
7.  The  burning  of  the  capitol  was  a  wanton  outrage  8.  Have 
you  not  seen  strong  men  weeping?  9.  The  general  having 
been  captured,  the  army  was  defeated.  10.  Your  remaining 
here  would  ruin  us  all. 

11.  Said  but  once,  said  but  softly,  not  marked  at  all,  words 
revive  before  me  in  darkness  and  solitude. — DeQuincey.  12.  A 
man  hardened  in  depravity  would  have  been  perfectly  con- 
tented with  an  acquittal  so  complete,  announced  in  language 
so  gracious. — Macaulay. 

13.  I  heard  the  ripple  washing  in  the  reeds, 

And  the  wild  water  lapping  on  the  crags. — Tennyson. 

14.  Toiling,  rejoicing,  sorrowing, 

Onward  through  life  he  goes, 
Something  attempted,  something  done, 
Has  earned  a  night's  repose. — Longfellow. 


92.  AUXILIARIES. 

1.  Auxiliary  Verbs  are  those  which  are  used  in  the 
conjugation  of  other  verbs. 

2.  They  are:  do,  be,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  must 

Rem.  I. — Do,  be,  have,  and  will  are  often  used  as  principal 
verbs ;  as,  "  He  does  well ;  "  "I  am ; "  "  We  have  cares  and 
anxieties;"  "He  willed  me  a  thousand  dollars." 

Rem.  2.— The  auxiliaries  were  originally  used  as  principal 
verbs,  followed  by  the  infinitives  of  what  are  now  called  the 
principal  verbs;  as,  "I  can  [to]  read;"  "You  may  [to]  go;" 
"  He  has  [to]  come."  The  sign  to  is  now  dropped,  and  the 
infinitive  is  regarded  as  the  principal  verb;  the  auxiliaries 
being  used  merely  to  show  the  relations  of  mode  and  tense. 

Rem.  3. — The  auxiliaries,  when  used  as  such,  except  must, 
which  is  used  in  the  present  tense  only,  have  two  tenses:  the 
present  and  the  past. 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 


83 


93.   CONJUGATION  OP   THE   AUXILIARIES. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


1st  person. 

2d  person. 

3d  person. 

1st  person. 

2d  person. 

3d  person. 

I 

Thou 

He 

We 

You 

They 

Am, 

art, 

is, 

Are, 

are, 

are, 

Do, 

dost, 

does, 

Do, 

do, 

do, 

Have, 

hast, 

has, 

Have, 

have, 

have, 

Will, 

wilt, 

will, 

Will, 

will, 

will, 

Shall, 

shalt, 

shall, 

Shall, 

shall, 

shall, 

May, 

mayst, 

may, 

May, 

may, 

may, 

Can, 

canst, 

can, 

Can, 

can, 

can, 

Must, 

must, 

must. 

Must, 

must, 

must. 

PAST    TENSE. 

Was, 

wast, 

was, 

Were, 

were, 

were, 

Did, 

didst, 

did,  • 

Did, 

did,' 

did, 

Had, 

hadst, 

had, 

Had, 

had, 

had, 

Would, 

wouldst, 

would, 

Would, 

would, 

would, 

Should, 

shouldst, 

should, 

Should, 

should, 

should, 

Might, 

mightst, 

might, 

Might, 

might, 

might, 

Could, 

couldst, 

could. 

MO 

94.    DEPl 

Could, 

DE. 

[NITION. 

could, 

could. 

1.  Mode  is  the  manner  in  which  the  action,  being,  or 
state  is  expressed. 

2.  There  are  five  modes:  the  Indicative,  Subjunctivej 
Potential,  Imperative,  and  Infinitive. 


95.   INDICATIVE  MODE. 


The  Indicative  Mode  asserts  a  thing  as  a  fact,  or  as 
actually  existing;  as,  "The  man  walks;"  "The  house 
was  burned." 


84  ENGLISH  GKAMMAE. 

Rem. — The  indicative  mode  may  be  used  in  interrogative 
and  exclamatory  sentences;  also,  in  subordinate  propositions, 
to  denote  what  is  actual,  or  what  is  assumed  as  actual;  as, 
"75  he  a  merchant?"  "The  rascal  has  stolen  my  horse!"  "I 
learn  that  you  have  removed  from  town." 

96.    SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

The  Subjunctive  Mode  asserts  a  thing  as  doubtful,  as 
a  wish,  a  supposition,  or  a  future  contingency ;  as,  "  If 
this  be  true,  all  will  end  well ; "  "Had  I  the  wings  of  a 
dove ; "  "I  shall  leave,  if  you  remain." 

Rem.  I. — The  subjunctive  mode  is  so  called  because  it  is 
used  in  subjoined  or  subordinate  propositions  only.  It  repre- 
sents an  ideal  act,  or  a  real  act  placed  under  a  condition  of 
more  or  less  doubt,  and  is  joined  to  the  verb  of  the  principal 
proposition  by  the  subordinate  connectives  if,  though,  except, 
lest,  that,  unless,  and  some  others.  These  connectives  are 
called  the  signs  of  the  subjunctive. 

Rem.  2. — The  sign  is  frequently  omitted,  in  which  case  the 
auxiliary  or  copula  precedes  the  subject;  as,  "Had  I  time," 
i.  e.,  If  I  had  time;  "Were  I  a  king,"  i.  e,  If  I  were  a  king. 

Rem.  3. — In  a  subordinate  proposition  expressing  a  condi- 
tion or  a  supposition,  the  verb  may  be  in  either  the  indicative 
or  the  subjunctive  mode.  Use  the  subjunctive  mode,  when  it  is 
intended  to  express  doubt  or  denial ;  the  indicative  or  potential  mode, 
when  the.  thing  supposed  is  a  fact  or  is  assumed  to  be  a  fact. 

Ex.— If  I  go,  I  shall  return:"  I  may  go,  or  I  may  not;  doubt  is 
implied.  "If  he  were  honest,  he  would  pay  me:"  the  supposition 
is  that  he  is  not  honest.  "If  he  had  been  there,  I  should  have  seen 
him:"  I  deny  that  he  was  there-  In  these  sentences,  the  verbs  are 
in  the  subjunctive  mode,  doubt  or  denial  being  implied.  In  the 
sentences,  "  If  he  goes,  you  must  stay,"  and  "  If  he  was  there,  he 
fought  bravely,"  "goes"  and  "was"  are  in  the  indicative  mode, 
neither  doubt  nor  denial  being  implied. 

Rem.  4. — Comparatively  few  modern  writers  observe  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  modes  in 
stating  suppositions.  The  directions  given  in  Rem.  3  state  the 
usage  of  the  best  writers. 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  85 


97.  POTENTIAL  MODE. 

-^  The  Potential  Mode  asserts  the  power,  necessity,  lib- 
erty, duty,  or  liability  of  acting  or  being  in  a  certain 
state ;  as,  "  You  can  read ;  "  "  He  must  go ;  "  "  You 
may  retire ;  "  "  They  should  be  more  careful." 

Rem.  I. — The  potential  mode,  like  the  indicative,  is  used  in 
interrogative  and  exclamatory  sentences ;  also,  in  subordinate 
propositions,  to  represent  what  is  assumed  as  actual,  or  what 
has  not  been  realized ;  as,  "  I  know  that  I  may  be  disap- 
pointed;" "He  says  that  I  may  study  algebra." 

Rem.  2. — The  signs  of  the  potential  mode  are  the  auxiliaries 
may,  can,  must,  might,  could,  would,  and  should. 

1.  Can  or  could  implies  power  or  ability  within  one's  self; 
as,  "He  can  do  it,"  i.  e.,  he  has  ability  to  do  it  without  assist- 
ance from  others. 

2.  May  or  might  implies  an  agency  without  or  beyond  one's 
self;  hence,  possibility,  probability,  permission,  wishing — the  act 
being  contingent  on  something  beyond  one's  own  will  or 
power;  as,  "He  may  go,'*  i.  e.,  all  hinderances  are  removed: 
"You  may  all  go  to  the  picnic,"  denotes  permission:  "O,  that 
he  might  return,"  denotes  a  wish  that  all  hinderance  to  his  re- 
turn be  removed. 

3.  Must  denotes  necessity;  as,  "We  must  submit  to  the  laws," 
i.  e.,  there  is  a  necessity  for  our  doing  so. 

4.  Should  denotes  that  the  act  or  state  is  not  dependent 
upon  the  doer's  will,  but  on  that  of  another;  hence,  duty  or 
obligation;  as,  "He  should  pay  his  debts,"  •*.  e.,  it  is  his  duty, 
or  he  is  under  a  moral  obligation  to  pay  his  debts. 

5.  Would  implies  inclination,  wish,  or  desire ;  as,  "  He  would 
pay  his  debts,  if  he  could,"  i.  e.}  he  has  the  inclination  or 
the  desire, 

98.    IMPERATIVE   MODE. 

The  Imperative  Mode  expresses  a  command,  an  ex- 
hortation, an   entreaty,  or  a  permission ;   as,  "  Charge, 


86  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR 

Chester,  charge  1 "   "Do  come  to  see  us ; "  "Lead  us  not 
into  temptation ; "  "  God  said,  Let  there  be  light." 

Rem.  I. — The  imperative  mode  may  usually  be  known  by 
the  omission  of  the  subject;  as,  "Write"  [thou,  you,  or  ye].  It 
denotes  a  command,  when  a  superior  speaks  to  an  inferior; 
an  exhortation,  when  an  equal  speaks  to  an  equal;  a  prayer 
or  supplication,  when  an  inferior  addresses  a  superior.  It  is 
used  mostly  in  principal  propositions,  and  is  made  subordinate 
in  direct  quotations  only;  as,  "He  said,  lBe  silent.'  " 

Rem.  2. — The  expressions  "Let  Ellen  come,"  "Let  him  go," 
etc.,  are  made  up  of  the  imperative  of  the  verb  let,  and  the 
objective  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun,  limited  by  an  infinitive. 
They  are  equivalent  to  "Permit  [thou]  Ellen  to  go,"  etc. 

Rem.  3. — These  expressions  are  sometimes  abridged  by  drop- 
ping the  verb  let,  changing  the  infinitive  to  the  imperative, 
and  the  objective  case  to  the  nominative;  as,  "Come  one,  come 
all,"  i.  e.,  Let  one  come,  let  all  come:  "Sing  we  to  our  God 
above,"  t.  e.,  Let  us  sing  to  our  God  above.  In  such  cases,  the 
noun  or  pronoun  should  be  parsed  as  the  subject  of  the  prop- 
osition, the  imperative  agreeing  with  it  in  number  and  person. 
This  use  of  the  imperative  is  not  uncommon. 

Ex. — "Ruin  seize  thee,  ruthless  king." — Gray.  "Laugh  those  who 
inay,  weep  those  who  must." — Scott.  "  Then  turn  we  to  her  latest 
tribune's  name." — Byron.  "Proceed  we  therefore  to  our  subject." — 
Pope.  "Come  the  eleventh  plague,  rather  than  this  should  be." — 
Cowley.  "Be  it  enacted." — Statutes  of  Ohio.  "Somebody  call  my 
wife." — Shakespeare.     "  Hallowed  be  thy  name." 

Rem.  4. — The  imperative  mode  is  sometimes  used  to  denote 
a  wish,  a  demand,  a  grant,  a  concession,  or  a  precaution. 

Ex. — "Let  all  the  earth  fear  the  Lord."  "Give  me  that  knife." 
" Let  it  be  lawful,  that  law  do  no  wrong." — Shakespeare.  "Let  it  be 
admitted."    "Look,  that  he  hide  no  weapon." — Bulwer. 


99.  INFINITIVE  MODE. 

The  Infinitive  Mode  expresses  the  action,  being,  or 
state,  without  affirming  it;  as,  to  write;  to  have  written; 
"He  rose  to 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  87 

Rem.  I. — The  infinitive  may  usually  be  known   by  the  sign 
to  placed  before  it.     This  sign  is  omitted   after  the  verbs  bid,' 
dare,  feel,  hear,  help,  let,  make,   need,  see,  and   a   few  others;    as, 
"Bid  them  be  quiet;"  "Let  them  come  on;"  "See  him  run." 

Rem.  2. — The  infinitive,  as  an  abstract  noun,  may  be  the 
subject  or  predicate  of  a  sentence;  may  be  in  apposition  with 
a  noun ;  and  may  be  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  prepo- 
sition; as,  "To  lie  is  disgraceful;"  "To  work  is  to  pray"  "De- 
lightful task,  to  rear  the  tender  thought;"  "I  love  to  read;" 
"  Can  save  the  son  of  Thetis  from  to  die!1 

Although  the  infinitive  has  the  construction  of  a  noun,  it 
may  govern  an  object,  or  be  modified  by  an  adverb.  It  is 
never  limited  by  an  adjective  attribute,  but  may  have  a  predi- 
cate adjective  belonging  to  it;  as,  "To  converse  is  pleasant ;"  "To 
suffer  all  this  wrong  is  hard." 


100.   EXERCISES. 

Tell  the  mode  of  the  verbs  in  the  following  sentences  i 

1.  A  great  storm  is  raging.  2.  You  may  go  or  stay.  3.  Bring 
me  some  flowers.  4.  Hope  thou  in  God.  5.  If  he  study,  he 
will  excel.  6.  If  he  studies,  it  is  when  he  is  alone.  7.  Were  I 
rich,  I  would  purchase  that  property.  8.  Who  will  go  with 
me?     9.  Do  let  me  see  your  book. 

10.  I  must  not  be  tardy.  11.  Lift  up  your  heads,  O  ye 
gates!  12.  Blessed  are  the  poor  in  spirit;  for  theirs  is  the 
kingdom  of  heaven.  13.  He  should  have  told  you.  14.  They 
dare  not  puzzle  us  for  their  own  sakes.  15.  Let  us  not,  I 
beseech  you,  deceive  ourselves  longer. 

16.  God  help  us!  what  a  poor  world  this  would  be,  if  this 
were  the  true  doctrine.  17.  If  a  line  is  parallel  to  a  line  of 
a  plane,  it  is  parallel  to  that  plane.  18.  If  a  plane  intersect 
two  parallel  planes,  the  lines  of  intersection  will  be  parallel. 
19.  "Could  he  have  kept  his  spirit  to  that  flight,  he  had  been 
happy." — Byron. 

20.  Reign  thou  in  hell,  thy  kingdom;  let  me  serve 
In  heaven,  God  ever  blest. — Milton. 


88  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

21.  Place  me  on  Sunium's  marble  steep, 

Where  nothing,  save  the  waves  and  I, 
May  hear  our  mutual  murmurs  sweep; 

There,  swan-like,  let  me  sing  and  die. — Byron. 


TENSE. 


101.   DEFINITION. 

1.  Tense  denotes  the  time  of  an  action  or  event. 

2.  There  are  three  divisions  of  time :  Past,  Present, 
and  Future.  Each  division  has  two  tenses:  an  absolute 
and  a  relative. 

3.  The  Absolute  Tenses  are  the  Present,  the  Past, 
and  the  Future.  They  denote  indefinite  or  incomplete 
action. 

4.  The  Relative  Tenses  are  the  Present  Perfect,  the 
Past  Perfect,  and  the  Future  Perfect,  They  denote 
completed   action. 


102.   PRESENT  TENSE. 

The  Present  Tense  denotes  present  time ;  as,  "  I 
walk ;  "    "  The   army   is   marching." 

Rem.  I. — The  present  tense  is  used  in  expressing  a  general 
truth,  or  what  is  habitual ;  as,  "  Perseverance  conquers  all 
things;"    "The  mail  arrives  at  six  P.    M." 

Rem.  2. — The  historical  present  is  the  present  used  for  the 
past,  to  describe  more  vividly  what  took  place  in  past  time; 
as,  "Tacitus  describes  the  manners  and  customs  of  the  ancient 
Germans;"  "Ulysses  wakes,  not  knowing  where  he  was." — Pope. 
"Matthew  traces  the  descent  of  Joseph;  Luke  traces  that  of 
Mary." 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  89 

Rem.  3. — The  present  of  the  speaker  or  hearer  is  what  is 
meant  by  present  time.  The  present  of  the  reader  may  not 
be  the  same  as  that  of  the  writer. 

Rem.  4. — When  preceded  by  a  relative  pronoun,  or  by  con- 
junctive adverbs  of  time,  the  present  tense  is  sometimes  future 
in  its  reference;  as,  "He  will  please  all  who  employ  him;"  "The 
flowers  will  bloom  when  spring  comes." 


103.  PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  as  past,  but  connected  with  present  time;  as,  "I 
have  learned  my  lesson." 

Rem.  I. — Have,  the  sign  of  the  present  perfect  tense,  origi- 
nally denoted  possession.  It  retains  this  meaning  when  used 
as  a  principal  verb.  As  an  auxiliary,  it  denotes  completion;  as, 
"The  hunters  have  killed  a  wolf;"  "A  man  has  fallen  from  the 
bridge." 

Rem.  2. — When  preceded  by  a  conjunctive  adverb  of  time, 
the  present  perfect  tense  sometimes  denotes  future  time;  as, 
"  He  will  forward  the  goods  as  soon  as  he  has  received  them." 


104.   PAST   TENSE. 

The  Past  Tense  expresses  what  took  place  in  time 
wholly  past ;  as,  "  I  wrote ;  "  "  I  was  sailing." 

Rem. — The  past  indicative,  like  the  present,  denotes  what  was 
habitual;  as,  "We  walked  five  miles  every  morning,"  In  the 
progressive  form,  it  denotes  an  act  in  past  time,  but  not  com- 
pleted; as,  "He  was  driving  furiously  when  I  saw  him." 

The  past  potential  denotes  (1)  a  duty  or  obligation,  without 
reference  to  time ;  as,  "  Judges  should  be  merciful : "  (2)  a 
habit  or  custom;  as,  "He  would  be  absent  a  week  at  a  time:" 
(3)  ability  possessed  in  past  time;  as,  "He  could  walk  yes- 
terday:" (4)  present  possibility  or  power;  as,  "I  could  write 
[now]  if  I  would:"  (5)  a  future  possibility;  as,  "If  I  should 
write  to  you  [hereafter],  you  must  answer  immediately." 


90  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


105.  PAST  PERFECT  TENSE. 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  act  as  ended  or 
completed  in  time  fully  past ;  as,  "  The  cars  had  started 
before  we  reached  the  depot." 

Rem.  I.— The  past  is  frequently  used  instead  of  the  past 
perfect,  to  denote  the  completion  of  an  act  at  or  before  a 
certain  past  time  mentioned;  as,  "The  boat  left  before  mid- 
night." 

Rem.  2. — The  past  perfect  subjunctive  and  past  perfect  potential 
deny  the  action  or  event ;  as,  M  If  I  had  started  sooner,  I 
should  have  overtaken  you." 


106.   FUTURE  TENSE. 

The  Future  Tense  expresses  what  will  take  place  in 
future  time ;  as,  "  I  shall  return  soon ;  "  "  The  lion  shall 
eat  straw  like  the  ox." 

Rem.  I. — Shall  and  will  are  the  signs  of  the  future  tense. 
Shall  expresses  the  action  or  event  (1)  as  a  duty  commanded; 
as,  "  He  shall  pay  you ;  "  "  Thou  shall  not  steal :  "  (2)  as  a 
prediction;  as,  "I  shall  make  a  thousand  dollars:"  (3)  as 
future;    as,    "I  shall  leave  at  noon." 

Will  expresses  the  action  or  event  (1)  as  something  deter- 
mined upon;  as,  "I  will  go:  no  power  on  earth  can  prevent 
me;"  ''The  cause  will  raise  up  armies:"  (2)  as  future;  as, 
"You  will  feel  better  to-morrow." 

Rem.  2.— Shall,  in  the  first  person,  and  will,  in  the  second 
and  third,  are  usually  employed  to  denote  futurity;  as,  "We 
shall  arrive  there  by  noon;"  "You  will  be  glad  to  see  us;" 
"  He  will  be  with  us." 

Will  is  used,  in  the  first  person,  to  denote  determination; 
and  shall,  in  the  second  and  third,  to  denote  necessity;  as,  "I 
will  write  to  you;"  "I  will  not  do  it,  come  what  may;"  "Neither 
he  nor  you  shall  go  without  me." 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  91 


107.  FUTUBE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  represents  an  action  as 
finished  or  ended  at  or  before  a  certain  future  time; 
as,  "I  shall  have  finished  my  task  at  three  o'clock;" 
"  We  shall  have  dined   before  you  arrive." 


108.  TENSES  IN  ALL  THE  MODES. 

1.  The  Indicative  Mode  has  the  six  tenses. 

2.  The  Subjunctive  Mode  has  three  tenses:  the  pres- 
ent, past,  and  past  perfect. 

3.  The  Potential  Mode  has  four  tenses :  the  present, 
present  perfect,  past,  and  past  perfect 

4.  The  Imperative  Mode  has  one  tense:  the  present. 

5.  The  Infinitive  Mode  has  two  tenses:  the  present 
and  present  perfect. 

Rem. — Tense  does  not  properly  belong  to  the  infinitive 
mode.  Its  tenses  are  mere  forms,  without  regard  to  time. 
The  present  tense  denotes  progressive  or  completed  action  or 
6tate,  with  reference  to  past,  present,  or  future  time;  the 
present  perfect,   a  completed   action  or  state  in   an   unlimited 


109.   SIGNS  OF  THE  TENSES:   ACTIVE  VOICE. 


INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Present,  ....  Simple  form  of  the  verb. 

Past, When  regular,  add  ed  to  the  simple  form. 

Future,  ....  Prefix  shall  or  will  to  the  simple  form. 

Present  Perfect,  Prefix  have,  hast,  or  has  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Past  Perfect,    .  Prefix  had  or  hadst  to  the  perfect  participle. 

Future  Perfect,  Prefix  shall  have  or  will  have  to  the  perfect  participle. 


92  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 

If,  though,  except,  unless,  etc.,  placed  before  tense  forms  given  in  the 
Conjugation,  are  called  signs  of  the  subjunctive  mode. 

POTENTIAL    MODE. 

Present,  ....  Prefix  may,  can  or  must  to  the  simple  form. 

Past, Prefix  might,  could,  would,  or  should  to  the  simple  form. 

Present  Perfect,  Prefix  may,  can,  or  must  have  to  the  perfect  participle. 
Past  Perfect,   .  Prefix  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  to  the  perfect 
participle. 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 
Present,  ....  Let,  or  a  command. 

INFINITIVE     MODE. 

Present,  ....  Prefix  to  to  the  simple  form. 

Present  Perfect,  Prefix  to  have  to  the  perfect  participle. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  ....  Add  ing  to  the  simple  form. 

Perfect,  ....  When  regular,  add  ed  or  d  to  the  simple  form. 

Compound,    ,   .  Prefix  having  to  the  perfect  participle. 


110.   FORMS  OF  THE  VERB. 

1.  Verbs  have  five  forms,  which  may  be  considered 
subdivisions  of  the  tenses:  the  Common,  the  Emphatic, 
the  Progressive,  the  Passive,  and  the  Ancient,  or  Solemn 
Style. 

2.  The  Common  Form  represents  an  act  as  a  custom, 
or  as  completed  without  reference  to  its  progress;  as, 
"I  write;"  "I  shall  write" 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  93 

3.  The  Emphatic  Form  represents  an  act  with  em- 
phasis; as,  "I  do  write;"  "He  did  go;"  "  He  declared 
that  he  did  not  do  it." 

Rem. — This  form  is  used  in  the  present  and  past  indicative 
and  subjunctive  and  in  the  present  imperative.  It  is  formed 
by  prefixing  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  to  do  to  the  simple 
form  of  the  verb. 

4.  The  Progressive  Form  is  used  to  denote  action  or 
state  in  progress;  as,  "I  am  writing;'7  "He  had  been 
singing." 

Rem. — The  progressive  form  may  be  used  in  all  the  modes 
and  tenses,  and  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  various  modes 
and  tenses  of  the  verb  to  be  to  the  present  participle  of  th<% 
principal  verb. 

5.  The  Passive  Form  denotes  the  reception  of  an  act 
by  its  subject;  as,  "I  am  struck;"  "John  was  pun- 
ished;" "I  shall  be  loved." 

Rem. — The  passive  form  is  used  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses, 
and  is  formed  by  prefixing  the  various  modes  and  tenses  of 
the  verb  to  be  to  the  perfect  participle  of  the  principal  verb. 

6.  The  Ancient  Form,  or  Solemn  Style,  is  used  in  the 
Bible,  in  religious  worship,  and  sometimes  in  poetry  and 
burlesque;  as,  "Thou  art  the  man;"  "So  shalt  thou 
rest;"  "Thou  art  a  pretty  fellow." 


111.  PERSON  AND  NUMBER. 

1.  The  Person  and  Number  of  verbs  are  their  modifu 
cations  to  mark  their  agreement  with  their  subjects. 

2.  A  subject  in  the  second  'person  singular,  generally 
requires  the  verb,  or  its  auxiliary,  to  end  in  t,  st,  or  est; 
as,  "Thou  shalt  not  steal;"  "Thou  canst  read;"  "Thou 
runnest." 


94  ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 

3.  A  subject  in  the  third  person  singular,  generally 
requires  the  verb,  or  its  auxiliary,  to  end  in  s,  es,  or  eth; 
as,  "  Julia  reads;"  "The  horse  goes;"  "God  loveth  us." 

4.  The  personal  terminations  in  the  plural  are  the 
same  as  the  first  person  singular,  except  in  the  verb 
to  be. 

5.  A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  person  and 
number. 

Rem.  1. — "When  two  or  more  nominatives,  differing  in  per- 
son, are  taken  collectively,  the  verb  prefers  the  first  to  the 
second,  and  the  second  to  the  third.  When  they  are  con- 
nected by  or  or  nor,  or  are  taken  separately,  it  prefers  the 
person  of  the  nominative  next  to  it.  Courtesy  requires  the 
first  place  to  be  given  to  the  second  person,  and  last  place 
to  the  first 

Ex. — "  You,  he,  and  I  have  to  remain ; "  "  You  and  he  have  to  learn 
that  long  lesson;"  "You  or  I  am  mistaken;"  "Thou  and  thy  friends 
are  to  make  reparation." 

Rem,  2. — A  verb  must  be  in  the  singular  number  when  its* 
subject  conveys  the  idea  of  unity. 

Ex. — "'Rainfalls;"  "The  army  is  marching;"  "Dombey  &  Son  [the 
title  of  a  book]  was  written  by  Dickens ; "  "  The  ten  dollars  [a  single 
sum]  was  duly  paid  •, "  "Descent  and  fall  [words  alike  in  meaning] 
to  us  is  adverse." 

Rem.  3. — A  verb  must  be  in  the  plural  number  when  its 
subject  conveys  the  idea  of  plurality. 

Ex. — "  The  rains  descend; "  "  The  multitude  pursue  pleasure ;  " 
"  Either  the  magistrate  or  the  lavjs  are  at  fault ; "  "  You,  he,  and  I 
are  here." 

112.    UNIPERSONAL  VERBS. 

A  Unipersonal  Verb  is  one  by  which  an  act  or  state 
is  asserted  independently  of  any  particular  subject;  as, 
"  It  snows ; "  "  It  cleared  off;  "  "  It  behooves  us  to  be 
careful/' 


ETYMOLOGY— VEKBS.  95 

Rem. — Meseems,  meseemed,  methinks,  methought,  may  be  regarded 
as  unipersonal  verbs,  equivalent  to  it  seems,  it  seemed  to  me,  I 
think,  I  thought. 

113.  CONJUGATION. 

1.  The  Conjugation  of  a  verb  is  the  correct  expres- 
sion, in  regular  order,  of  its  modes,  tenses,  voices,  per- 
sons, and  numbers. 

2.  There  are  four  forms  of  conjugation :  the  Regular, 
the  Emphatic,  the  Progressive,  and  the  Interrogative. 

3.  The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb  are:  the  present  in- 
dicative, the  past  indicative,  and  the  perfect  participle. 

4.  The  Synopsis  of  a  verb  is  its  variation  in  form, 
through  the  different  modes  and  tenses,  in  a  single  num- 
ber and  person. 


114.   CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB    "TO  BE." 

PKINCIPAL  PAETS. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Perfect  Participle. 

Be,  or  am.  Was.  Been. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Present,  ....  I  am.  Past  Perfect,   .  I  had  been. 

Present  Perfect,  I  have  been.  Future, ....  I  shall  be. 

Past, I  was.  Future  Perfect,  I  shall  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE. 

Present,  ....  If  I  be.  Past, If  I  were. 

Past  Perfect,  ...  If  I  had  been 


96 


ENGLISH   GKAMMAR 


POTENTIAL     MODE. 

Present, .    ,    .    .  I  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

Present  Perfect,  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been. 

Past, I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  be. 

Past  Perfect,    .  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  been. 


REGULAR    CONJUGATION. 

Note. — Shall,  in  the  first  person,  and  vnU,  in  the  second  and  third, 
future  tenses,  are  used  to  denote  futurity.  When  will  is  used  in  the 
first  person,  or  shall,  in  the  second  or  third,  determination  or  necessity, 
as  well  as  futurity,  is  represented. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 


PRESENT    TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  I  am, 

2.  Thou  art, 

3.  He  is; 


Plural. 

1.  We  are, 

2.  You  are, 

3.  They  are. 


PRESENT    PERFECT    TENSE. 


1.  I  have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been, 

3.  He  has  been; 


1.  We  have  been, 

2.  You  have  been, 

3.  They  have  been. 


1.  T  was, 

2.  Thou  wast, 

3.  He  was: 


PAST    TENSE. 


1.  We  were, 

2.  You  were, 

3.  They  were. 


PAST     PERFECT    TENSE. 


1.  I  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been, 

3.  He  had  been; 


1.  We  had  been, 

2.  You  had  been, 

3.  They  had  been. 


1.  I  shall  be, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be, 

3.  He  will  be : 


FUTURE    TENSJJrv" 


1.  We  shall  be, 

2.  You  will  be, 

3.  They  will  be. 


ETYMOLOGY— VEEBS.  97 

FUTURE    PERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been,  1.  We  shall  have  been, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been,  2.  You  will  have  been, 

3.  He  will  have  been ;  3.  They  will  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE     MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 

1.  If  I  be,  1.  If  we  be, 

2.  If  thou  be,  2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  he  be;  3.  If  they  be. 

PAST    TENSE. 

1.  If  I  were,  1.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  wert,  2.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he  were;  3.  If  they  were. 

PAST   PERFECT    TENSE. 

1.  If  I  had  been,  1.  If  we  had  been, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  been,  2.  If  you  had  been, 

3.  If  he  had  been;  3.  If  they  had  J>een^ 

POTENTIAL     MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 

1.  I  may  be,  1.  We  may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be,  2.  You  may  be, 

3.  He  may  be;  3.  They  may  be. 

PRESENT    PERFECT    TENSE. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  1.  We  may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  2.  You  may  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been ;  3.  They  may  have  been. 


PAST    TENSE. 

1.  I  might  be, 

1.  We  might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be, 

2.  You  might  be, 

3.  He  might  be; 

3.  They  might  be. 

H.  G.-7. 

98  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

PAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 

«  Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might  have  been,  1.  We  might  have  been 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,  2.  You  might  have  been, 

3.  He  might  have  been;  3.  They  might  have  been. 

Note. — In  reviews,  use  the  auxiliary  can  or  must. 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 

2.  Be,  or  do  thou  be;  2.  Be,  or  do  ye  or  you  be. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 
Present,  To  be.  Present  Perfect,  To  have  been, 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present,  Being.  Perfect,  Been.  Compound,  -Having  been. 


115.  CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  "TO  LOVE." 

ACTIVE    VOICE. 

PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 

Present  Tense.  Past  Tense.  Perfect  Participle. 

Love.  Loved.  Loved. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Present, ....  I  love.  Past  Perfect,    .  I  had  loved. 

Present  Perfect,  I  have  loved.  Future,     ...  I  shall  love. 

Past, I  loved.  Future  Perfect,  I  shall  have  loved 

SUBJUNCTIVE     MODE. 

Present,     .     .     .     If  I  love.  Past,     ...     If  I  loved. 

Past  Perfect,     .     .     .     If  I  had  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  99 

POTENTIAL     MODE. 

Present,     ...  I  may,  can,  or  must  love. 
Present  Perfect,  I  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

Past, I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

Past  Perfect,    .  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

REGULAR    CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  love,  1.  We  love, 

2.  Thou  lovest,  2.  You  love, 

3.  He  loves;  3.  They  love. 

PRESENT    PERFECT    TENSE. 

1.  I  have  loved,  1.  We  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  2.  You  have  loved, 

3.  He  has  loved;  3.  They  have  loved. 


PAST    TENSE. 


1.  I  loved,  1.  We  loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.  You  loved, 

3.  He  loved  ;  3.  They  loved. 


PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 


1.  I  had  loved,  1.  We  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved,  2.  You  had  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved;  3.  They  had  loved. 


FUTURE  TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  love,  1.  We  shall  love, 

2.  Thou  wilt  love,  2.  You  will  love, 

3.  He  will  love ;  3.  They  will  love. 

FUTURE  PERFECT    TENSE. 

1.  I  shall  have  loved,  1.  We  shall  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved,  2.  You  will  have  loved, 

3.  He  will  have  loved;  3.  They  will  have  loved. 


100  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 


Singular. 

1. 

If  I  love, 

2. 

If  thou  love, 

3. 

If  he  love; 

1. 

If  I  loved, 

2. 

If  thou  loved, 

3. 

If  he  loved ; 

Plural. 

1.  If  we  love, 

2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  they  love. 


PAST  TENSE. 


1.  If  we  loved, 

2.  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  they  loved. 


PAST    PEEFECT   TENSE. 


1.  If  I  had  loved,  1.  If  we  had  loved, 

2.  If  thou  hadst  loved,  2.  If  you  had  loved, 

3.  If  he  had  loved ;  3.  If  they  had  loved. 


POTENTIAL    MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 


1.  I  may  love,  1.  We  may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love,  2.  You  may  love, 

3.  He  may  love;  3.  They  may  love. 


PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 


1.  I  may  have  loved,  1.  We  may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  2.  You  may  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved ;  3.  They  may  have  loved. 


PAST  TENSE. 


1.  I  might  love,  1.  We  might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love,  2.  You  might  love, 

3.  He  might  love;  3.  They  might  love. 


PAST    PERFECT   TENSE. 


1.  I  might  have  loved,  1.  We  might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,  2.  You  might  have  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  loved;  3.  They  might  have  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  101 

IMPERATIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 

2.  Love,  or  do  thou  love;  2.  Love,  or  do  ye  or  you  love. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 
Present,  To  love.  Present  Perfect,  To  have  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present,  Loving.  Perfect,  Loved.  Compound,  Having  loved. 

116.  CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB  "TO  LOVE." 

PASSIVE   VOICE. 

The  Passive  Voice  is  formed  by  prefixing,  as  an  auxiliary, 
the  various  forms  of  the  verb  to  be,  to  the  perfect  participle  of  a 
transitive  verb.  The  tense  of  the  verb  to  be  determines  the 
tense  in  the  Passive  Voice. 

SYNOPSIS. 

INDICATIVE    MODE. 

Present,     ......  I  am  loved. 

Present  Perfect,  ....  I  have  been  loved. 

Past, I  was  loved. 

Past  Perfect, I  had  been  loved. 

Future, I  shall  be  loved. 

Future  Perfect,  ....  I  shall  have  been  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 

Present,    .    .    If  I  be  loved.  Past,    .    .    If  I  were  loved. 

Past  Perfect,    ...     If  I  had  been  loved. 

POTENTIAL     MODE. 

Present, I  may  be  loved. 

Present  Perfect,     ...  I  may  have  been  loved. 

Past, I  might  be  loved. 

Past  Perfect,    .    ,     .     .  I  might  have  been  loved. 


102 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


REGULAR   CONJUGATION. 

INDICATIVE     MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 


Singular. 

1.  I  am  loved, 

2.  Thou  art  loved, 

3.  He  is  loved ; 


Plural. 

1.  We  are  loved, 

2.  You  are  loved, 

3.  They  are  loved. 


PRESENT 


1.  I  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  been  loved, 

3.  He  has  been  loved; 


PERFECT    TENSE. 

1.  We  have  been  loved, 

2.  You  have  been  loved, 

3.  They  have  been  loved. 


1.  I  was  loved, 

2.  Thou  wast  loved, 

3.  He  was  loved; 


PAST    TENSE. 


J.  We  were  loved. 

2.  You  were  loved, 

3.  They  were  loved. 


PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 


1.  I  had  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved, 

3.  He  had  been  loved; 


1.  We  had  been  loved, 

2.  You  had  been  loved, 

3.  They  had  been  loved. 


1.  I  shall  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  be  loved, 

3.  He  will  be  loved ; 


FUTURE  TENSE. 


1.  We  shall,  be  loved, 

2.  You  will  be  loved, 

3.  They  will  be  loved. 


FUTURE  PERFECT    TENSE. 


1.  I  shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  been  loved ; 


1.  We  shall  have  been  loved, 

2.  You  will  have  been  loved, 

3.  They  will  have  been  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE    MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 


1.  If  I  be  loved, 

2.  If  thou  be  loved, 

3.  If  he  be  loved; 


1.  If  we  be  loved, 

2.  If  you  be  loved, 

3.  If  they  be  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY- VEKBS.  103 

PAST    TENSE. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were  loved,  1.  Were  I  loved,  1.  If  we  were  loved, 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved,       2.  Wert  thou  loved,  2.  If  you  were  loved, 

3.  If  he  were  loved ;        3.  Were  he  loved ;  3.  If  they  were  loved. 

Rem. — For  the  Past  Perfect  Tense,  prefix  if  to  the  forms  of 

the  Past  Perfect  Indicative. 

POTENTIAL    MODE. 
PRESENT    TENSE. 

1.  I  may  be  loved,  1.  We  may  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be  loved,  2.  You  may  be  loved, 

3.  He  may  be  loved ;  3.  They  may  be  loved. 

PRESENT    PERFECT    TENSE, 

1.  I  may  have  been  loved,  1.  We  may  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been  loved,       2,  You  may  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  been  loved ;  3.  They  may  have  been  loved. 

PAST    TENSE. 

1.  I  might  be  loved,  I.  We  might  be  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be  loved,  2.  You  might  be  loved, 

3.  He  might  be  loved ;  3.  They  might  be  loved. 

PAST   PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  I  might  have  been  loved,  1.  We  might  have  been  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have«been  loved.      2.  You  might  have  been  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  been  loved;  3.  They  might  have  been  loved. 

Note. — In  reviews,  use   the   auxiliary  can  or  must. 

IMPERATIVE     MODE. 
PRESENT   TENSE. 

2.  Be  loved,  or  be  thou  loved;     2.  Be  loved,  or  be  you  loved. 

INFINITIVE    MODE. 

Present,  To  be  loved.  Present  Perfect,  To  have  been  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Present,  Being  loved.     Perfect,  Loved.     Compound,  Having  been  loved. 


104  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 


117.  COORDINATE  FORMS  OF  CONJUGATION. 

The  Progressive,  the  Emphatic,  and  the  Interrogative  are 
called  the  Coordinate  Forms  of  Conjugation. 


SYNOPSIS. 

PROGRESSIVE  FORM. 


INDICATIVE   MODE. 


Present,  .  -  • 
Present  Perfect, 
Past,  .  .  .  . 
Fast  Perfect. 
Future,  .  .  . 
Future  Perfect, 


I  am  loving. 

I  have  been  loving. 

I  was  loving. 

I  had  been  loving. 

I  shall  be  loving, 

I  shall  have  been  loving. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 


Present,    .    .    If  I  be  loving  Past,  If  I  were  loving. 

Past  Perfect,     ....     If  I  had  been  loving. 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Present, I  may  be  loving. 

Present  Perfect,      ...  I  may  have  been  loving. 

Past, I  might  be  loving. 

Past  Perfect,     ....  I  migh    have  been  loving. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

Present,  To  be  loving.  Present  Perfect,  To  have  been  loving. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present,     .     .     .     Be  thou  loving. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present,  Loving.  Compound,  Having  been  loving. 

THE  EMPHATIC  FORM. 
INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present,  I  do  love.  Past,  I  did  love. 


ETYMOLOGY— VERBS.  105 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present,  If  I  do  love.  Past,  If  I  did  love. 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 

Present,    .    .    .     Do  thou  love. 

INTERROGATIVE  FORM. 
INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present,  ....  Love  I?    Do  I  love?    Am  I  loving? 

Present  Perfect,    .  Have  I  loved?    Have  I  been  loving? 

Past, Loved  I?    Did  I  love?    Was  I  loving? 

Past  Perfect,     .     .  Had  I  loved?    Had  I  been  loving? 

Future,    .    .    .    .  Shall  I  love?    Shall  I  be  loving? 

Future  Perfect,     .  Shall  I  have  loved?    Shall  I  have  been  loving? 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Present,  .    .     ,  Must  I  love?  Past,  .    .     .  Might  I  love? 

Present  Perfect,  Must  I  have  loved?    Past  Perfect,  Might  I  have  loved? 


118.  NEGATIVE  FORMS. 

1.  To  conjugate  a  verb  negatively,  place  not  after  it 
or  after  the  first  auxiliary,  but  before  the  infinitive  and 
the  participles. 

Ex.— Indicative,   I   learn    not,   or,   I    do  not   learn.     I   have  not 
learned.     I  learned  not,  or,  did  not  learn,  etc. 
Infinitive. — Not  to  learn.     Not  to  have  learned. 
Participle. — Not  learning.    Not  learned.    Not  having  learned. 

2.  To  conjugate  a  verb  interrogatively  and  negatively, 
in  the  indicative  and  potential  modes,  place  the  subject 
and  not  after  the  verb,  or  after  the  first  auxiliary. 

Ex.— Learn  I  not?  or,  Do  I  not  learn9  jiave  I  not  learned? 
Did  I  not  learn?  etc. 


106 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


119.   EXERCISES. 

Write  a  synopsis  of  the  transitive  verbs  write,  think,  row, 
arouse,  build,  conquer,  command,  entreat,  teach,  and  instruct,  in  the 
Indicative,  Subjunctive,  and  Potential  Modes,  Active  and 
Passive  Voices. 

Tell  the  mode,  tense,  person,  and  number  of  each  verb  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  He  has  gone.  2.  I  might  write.  3.  We  had  gone.  4.  He 
had  been  assured.  5.  If  I  were  loved.  6.  They  may  have  been 
left.  7.  You  were  seen.  8.  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  9.  She  will 
have  been  invited.  10.  He  might  have  built.  11.  You  might 
have  been  seen.     12.  The  vessel  will  have  sailed. 

13.  We  might  have  written.  14.  They  were  loved.  15.  If 
I  had  been  loved.  16.  If  he  is  loved.  17.  Though  he  love. 
18.  Though  he  is  loved.  19.  If  I  may  be  seen.  20.  We  can  go. 
21.  Go.     22.  Remain.     23.  If  he  return.     24.  If  he  returns. 


120.   IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


An  Irregular  Verb  is  one  which  does  not  form  its  past 
tense  and  perfect  participle  by  adding  d  or  ed  to  the 
present  tense ;  as,  do,  did,  done ;  go,  went,  gone. 

The  following  list  contains  the  Principal  Parts  of  most  of  the 
Irregular  Verbs.     Those  marked  it  have  also  the  regular  forms. 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT 
PARTICIPLE. 

PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT 
PARTICIPLE. 

Abide, 

abode, 

abode. 

Become, 

became, 

become. 

Am, 

was, 

been. 

Befall, 

befell, 

befallen. 

Awake, 

awoke,  R.f  awaked, 
I  awoke. 

Beget, 

(  begat, 
I  begot, 

begctten, 
begot. 

Arise, 

arose, 

arisen. 

Begin, 

began, 

begun. 

Bear, 

f  bore, 
•  I  bare, 

born. 

Behold, 

beheld, 

beheld. 

(bring  forth) 

Belay, 

belaid,  r. 

belaid,  r. 

Bear  (carry),  bore, 

borne. 

Bend, 

bent,  r. 

bent,  r. 

Beat, 

beat, 

f  beaten, 
*■  beat. 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r. 

bereft,  r. 

Beseech, 

besought, 

besought. 

ETYMOLOGY— VEKBS. 


107 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT 
PARTICIPLE. 

PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT 
PARTICIPLE. 

Bet, 

bet,  k. 

bet,  R, 

Dream, 

dreamt,  ] 

r.  dreamt,  R. 

Betide, 

f  betided, 
I  betid, 

betided, 

Dress, 

drest,  r. 

drest,  R. 

betid. 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  r 

dwelt,  r. 

Bid, 

{bid, 
1  bade, 

bid, 

Drive, 

drove, 

driven. 

bidden. 

Eat, 

ate, 

eaten. 

Bite, 

bit, 

/  bitten, 
I  bit. 

Fall, 
Feed, 

fell, 
'fed, 

fallen, 
fed. 

Bind, 

bound, 

bound, 

Feel, 

felt, 

felt. 

Bleed, 

bled, 

bled. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fought. 

Bless, 

f  blessed, 
\  blest, 

blessed, 

Find, 

found, 

found. 

blest. 

Forbear, 

forbore, 

forborne. 

Breed, 
Break, 

bred, 
f  broke, 
I  brake, 

bred, 
broken, 

Forget, 

forgot, 

/  forgotten, 
i.  forgot, 

broke. 

Forsake, 

forsook, 

forsaken. 

Bring, 

brought, 

brought, 

Flee, 

fled, 

fled. 

Build, 

built,  R. 

built,  r. 

Fling, 

flung, 

flung. 

Burn, 

burnt,  r 

burnt,  R. 

Fly, 

flew, 

flown. 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Freeze, 

froze, 

frozen. 

Buy, 

bought, 

bought. 

Freight, 

freighted,    fraught,  n 

Cast, 
Catch, 

cast, 
caught,  : 

cast. 
R.  caught,  R. 

Get, 

got, 

fgot, 
\  gotten. 

Chide, 

chid, 

f  chidden, 
I  chid. 

Give, 
Gild, 

gave, 
gilt,  r. 

given, 
gilt,  R. 

Choose, 

chose, 

chosen. 

Gird, 

girt,  r. 

girt, R. 

Cleave, 

[adhere 

r  cleaved, 
>«  \  clave, 

cleaved. 

Go, 
Grave, . 

went, 
graved, 

gone, 
graven,  r< 

Cleave, 

(split 

r  cleft, 

cleft, 

Grind, 

ground, 

ground. 

1  clove, 

cloven, 

Grow, 

grew, 

grown. 

y-  clave, 

cleaved. 

Hang, 

hung,  r. 

hung,  r. 

Cling, 

clung, 

clung. 

Have, 

had, 

had. 

Clothe, 

f  clothed, 
I  clad, 

clothed, 

Heave, 

hove,  r. 

hove,  r. 

clad. 

Hew, 

hewed, 

hewn,  r. 

Come, 

came, 

come. 

Hear, 

heard, 

heard. 

Cost, 
Creep, 

cost, 
crept, 

cost, 
crept. 

Hide, 

hid, 

f  hidden, 
thid. 

Crow, 

crew,  r. 

crowed. 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

Cut, 
Dare, 

cut, 
durst,  r 

cut. 
dared. 

Hold, 

held, 

{held, 
I  holden. 

Deal, 

dealt, 

dealt. 

Hurt, 

hurt, . 

hurt. 

Dig, 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Keep, 

kept, 

kept. 

Do, 

did, 

done. 

Kneel, 

knelt,  r. 

knelt. 

Draw, 

drew, 

drawn. 

Knit, 

knit,  r. 

knit,  R. 

108 


ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT 
PARTICIPLE. 

PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT 
PARTICIPLE. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Lay, 

laid, 

laid. 

Shape, 

shaped, 

shapen,  r. 

Lead, 

led, 

led. 

Shave, 

shaved, 

shaven,  r. 

Lean, 

leant,  R. 

leant,  R. 

Shear, 

shore,  r. 

shorn,  R. 

Leap, 

leapt,  R. 

leapt,  R. 

Shed, 

shed, 

shed. 

Learn, 

learnt,  r 

learnt,  r. 

Shine, 

shone,  R. 

shone,  R. 

Leave, 

left, 

left. 

Shoe, 

shod, 

shod. 

Lend, 

lent, 

lent. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Let, 

let, 

let. 

Show, 

showed, 

shown. 

Lie,  (recline),  lay, 

lain. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shred. 

Light, 

lit,  r. 

lit,  r. 

Shrink 

r  shrunk, 
\  shrank, 

shrunk, 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

►  'ill  lllJtv* 

shrunken. 

Load, 

loaded, 

laden,  r. 

Shut, 

shut, 

shut. 

Make, 

made, 

made. 

•  Sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

Mean, 
Meet, 

meant, 
met, 

meant, 
met. 

Sing, 

f  sang, 
I  sung, 

sung. 

Mow, 

mowed, 

mown,  r. 

Sink, 

r  sank, 

sunk. 

Pay, 

paid, 

paid. 

I  sunk, 

Pass, 

past,  r. 

past. 

SOW, (scatter),  SOWed, 

sown,  r. 

Pen,  {inclose),  pent,  r. 

pent,  r. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Plead, 

r  plead,  r 
t  pled, 

plead,  r. 

Sleep, 

slept, 

slept. 

pled. 

Sling, 

slung, 

slung. 

Put, 

put, 

put. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slunk. 

Quit, 

quit,  r. 

quit,  r. 

Slit, 

slit, 

slit. 

Rap, 

rapt,  r. 

rapt,  r. 

Smell, 

smelt, 

smelt,  r 

Read, 

read, 

read. 

Smite, 

smote, 

J  smitten, 
I  smit. 

Reave, 

reft, 

reft. 

Rend, 

rent, 

rent. 

Speak, 

spoke. 

spoken. 

Rid, 

rid, 

rid. 

Speed, 

sped, 

sped. 

Ride, 

rode, 

f  ridden, 
I  rode. 

Spell, 

spelt,  r. 

spelt,  r. 

Spend, 

spent, 

spent. 

Ring, 

/  rang, 
I  rung, 

rung. 

Spill, 

spilt,  R. 

spilt,  R. 

Spin, 

(  spun, 
\  span, 

spun. 

Rise, 

rose, 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived, 

riven,  R. 

Spit, 

f  spit, 
I  spat, 

spit, 

Run, 

ran, 

run. 

spitten. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

sawn,  r. 

Split, 

split, 

split. 

Say, 

said, 

said. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread. 

See, 
Seethe, 

saw,  # 
sod,  R. 

seen, 
sodden,  r. 

Spring, 

f  sprang, 
\  sprung, 

sprung. 

Seek, 

sought, 

sought. 

Spoil, 

spoilt,  R. 

spoilt,  R. 

Set, 

set, 

set. 

Stay, 

staid,  R. 

staid,  r. 

ETYMOLOGY— VERBS. 


109 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT 
PARTICIPLE. 

PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PERFECT 
PARTICIPLE. 

Stand, 

stood, 

stood. 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught. 

Stave, 

stove,  R. 

stove,  R. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Steal, 

stole, 

stolen. 

Tell, 

told, 

told. 

Stick, 

stuck, 

stuck. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Sting, 

stung, 

stung. 

Thrive, 

throve,  r 

.  thriven,  R. 

Stride, 

r  strode, 
I  strid, 

stridden, 

Throw, 

threw, 

thrown. 

strid. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust. 

Strike, 

struck, 

r  struck, 
\  stricken. 

Tread, 

trod, 

f  trodden, 
I  trod. 

String, 

strung, 

strung. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxen,  r. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

Wear, 

wore, 

worn. 

Strow, 

strowed, 

f  strowed, 
I  strown. 

Weave, 
Weep, 

wove,  r. 
wept, 

woven,  r. 
wept. 

Swear, 

r  swore, 
I  sware, 

sworn. 

Wake, 
Wed, 

woke,  r. 
wed,  r. 

woke,  r. 
wed,  r. 

Sweat, 

sweat,  r 

.    sweat,  r. 

Wet, 

wet,  r. 

wet,  r. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

swept. 

Whet, 

whet,  r. 

whet,  r. 

Swell, 

swelled, 

swollen,  r. 

Win, 

won, 

won. 

Swim, 

(  swam, 
1  swum, 

swum. 

Wind, 
Work, 

wound, 
wrought, 

wound. 
R.  wrought,  r. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swung. 

Wring, 

wrung, 

wrung. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Write, 

wrote, 

written. 

Rem.- 

—  The  auxiliaries   are   all 

irregular 

verbs.     Their  forms 

may  be  found  in 

the  paradigm 

for  their 

conjugation. 

121.  DEFECTIVE   AND  REDUNDANT  VERBS. 


1.  Defective  Verbs  are  those  which  want  some  of  the 
Principal  Parts. 

Ex. — Beware,  from  be  and  aware,  used  mostly  in  the  imperative 
mode,  but  may  be  used  wherever  be  would  occur  in  the  conjuga- 
tion of  the  verb  to  be ;  as,  "  Beware  the  awful  avalanche ! "  "  If 
angels  fell,  why  should  not  men  beware  f" 

Ought,  used  in  both  present  and  past  tenses;  as,  "I  know  I  ought 
to  go,"  (now) ;  "  I  knew  he  ought  to  have  gone,"  (then). 

Quoth,  used  for  said;  as,  "'Not  I,'  quoth  Sancho."  It  always 
stands  before  its  subject.  Quod  is  also  used  in  the  same  sense,  by 
old  authors. 

Wit,  in  the  sense  of  know;  as,  " To  wit"  i.  e.,  namely.  Wot,  wis, 
wert,  wist,  wote,  derived  from  wit,  are  found  in  old  authors. 


HO  ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 

2.  The  Auxiliaries  are  also  defective,  wanting  the  per- 
fect participle. 

3.  Redundant  Verbs  are  those  which  have  more  than 
one  form  for  their  past  tense  or  perfect  participle. 

Ex. — Cleave;  cleft,  clove,  or  clave;  cleft,  cloven,  or  cleaved. 

122.   ORDER   OF  PARSING-. 

1.  A  Verb,  and  why? 

2.  Regular  or  Irregular,  and  why? 

3.  Give  its  principal  parts. 

4.  Copulative,  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  why? 

5.  Voice,  and  why? 

6.  Mode,  and  why? 

7.  Tense,  and  why?     Inflect  the  tense. 

8.  Person  and  number,  and  why?     Rule. 

123.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING. 

I.  "Mary  has  recited  her  lesson." 

Has  recited  is  a  verb;  it  is  a  word  which  expresses  being,  action, 
or  state:  regular;  it  forms  its  past  tense  and  perfect 
participle  by  adding  ed:  principal  parts  are  pres.,  recite, 
past,  recited,  perfect  participle,  recited:  transitive;  it  re- 
quires the  addition  of  an  object  to  complete  its  mean- 
ing: active  voice;  it  represents  the  subject  as  acting: 
common  form;  it  represents  a  customary  act:  indicative 
mode;  it  asserts  a  thing  as  actual:  present  perfect  tense; 
it  represents  a  past  act  as  completed  in  present  time: 
third  person,  singular  number;  to  agree  with  its  subject 
"  Mary,"  according  to  Rule  XIII :  "A  verb  must  agree 
with  its  subject  in  person  and  number." 

II.  "  I  shall  go  if  you  stay." 

Shall  go  .  .  is  a  verb;  irregular;  it  does  not  form  its  past  tense  and 
perfect  participle  by  adding  ed:  principal  parts  are  go, 
went,  gone:  intransitive;  common  form;  indicative  mode; 
future  tense;  first  person,  singular  number:  Rule  XIII. 


ETYMOLOGY— VEEBS.  1 1 1 

Stay.  ...  o  is  a  verb;  regular;  principal  parts;  (give  them):  intransi- 
tive; common  form;  subjunctive  mode;  it  represents  an  act 
as  conditional:  present  tense  in  form,  but  denotes  future 
time:  second  person,  plural  number;  Eule  XIII. 

III.  "He  should  have  answered  my  letter." 

Should  have  answered  is  a  verb;  regular;  principal  parts;  (give 
them):  transitive;  active  voice;  common  form;  potential 
mode;  it  represents  an  act  as  obligatory:  past  perfect 
tense;  it  is  the  form  used  to  represent  an  act  as  com- 
pleted at  or  before  some  other  act:  third  person,  singular 
number;  Eule  XIII. 

IV.  ''Bring  me  a  glass  of  water." 

Bring  ....  is  a  verb;  irregular;  principal  parts;  (give  them) :  transi- 
tive ;  active  voice;  common  form ;  imperative  mode ;  present 
tense;  second  person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its 
subject  "thou"  understood:  Eule  XIII. 

V.  "  He  attempted  to  ascend  the  mountain.' 

To  ascend  .  is  a  verb;  regular;  principal  parts;  (give  them):  transi- 
tive; active  voice;  common  form;  infinitive  mode;  present 
tense;  object  of  "attempted":  Eule  VI. 

VI.  "  The  letter  was  written  yesterday." 

Was  written  is  a  verb;  irregular;  principal  parts;  (give  them) :  transi- 
tive; passive  voice;  it  represents  the  subject  as  being 
acted  upon:  indicative  mode;  past  tense;  third  person, 
singular  number:  Eule  XIII. 

VII.  "  Liberty  is  sweet." 

Is is  a  verb;  irregular;  principal  parts;  (give  them) :  copula- 
tive; it  is  used  to  connect  the  predicate  "sweet"  to  the 
subject  "liberty":  indicative  mode;  present  tense;  third 
person,  singular  number,  to  agree  with  its  subject  "  lib- 
erty ":*Eule  XIII. 

VIII.  "  He  was  considered  rich." 

Was  considered  is  a  verb;  regular;  principal  parts;  (give  them): 
passive  form;  copulative;  indicative  mode;  past  tense;  third 
person,  singular  number:  Eule  XIII. 


112  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR 

IX.  "The  fields  look  green." 

Look  ....  is  a  verb ;  regular ;  principal  parts ;  (give  them) :  copula- 
tive; it  connects  the  predicate  "green"  to  the  subject 
"  fields  " :  indicative  mode ;  present  tense ;  third  personf 
plural  number;  Eule  XIII. 

X.  "John  hastened  to  assist  us." 

To  assist.  .  is  a  verb;  regular;  principal  parts;  (give  them):  transi- 
tive; active  voice;  infinitive  mode;  it  expresses  action 
without  affirming  it:  it  depends  upon  "hastened": 
Eule  XVII. 

XI.  "To  lie  is  disgraceful." 

To  lie  ...  is  a  verb;  regular;  principal  parts;  (give  them) :  infinitive 
mode;  it  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence  "To  lie  is  dis- 
graceful," and  is  in  the  nominative  case:  Eule  I. 

XII.  "He  has  been  reading  Shakespeare." 

Has  been  reading  is  a  verb;  irregular;  principal  parts;  (give  them): 
active  voice;  progressive  form ;  it  denotes  continuance  of 
action:  indicative  mode;  present  perfect  tense;  third  person, 
singular  number:  Eule  XIII. 

XIII.  "That  man  did  buy  our  house." 

Did  buy  .  .  is  a  verb;  irregular;  principal  parts;  (give  them):  active 
voice;  emphatic  form;  it  denotes  assertion  with  emphasis: 
indicative  mode;  past  tense;  third  person}  singular  number: 
Eule  XIII. 


124.   EXERCISES. 

Parse  the  nouns,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and  verbs  in  the  following  sen- 
tences : 

1.  They  commenced  plowing  yesterday.  2.  I  seldom  write 
letters.  3.  My  father  brought  me  some  pine-apples  when  he 
came  from  the  city.  4.  She  had  gone  to  walk.  5.  "When  do 
you  intend  to  return  my  umbrella?  6.  The  workmen  should 
have  been  more  careful.  7.  Hallowed  be  thy  name.  8.  Ee- 
spect  the  aged.     9.  I  could  not  learn  to  do  it 


ETYMOLOGY- VEKBS.  113 

10.  The  weather  was  unpleasant.  11.  He  should  have  been 
more  industrious.  12.  Shall  I  assist  you?  13.  How  many  reg- 
iments were  mustered  out?  14.  Have  all  the  gifts  of  healing? 
15.  Eemember  thy  Creator  in  the  days  of  thy  youth.  16.  The 
poor  must  work  in  their  grief.  17.  We  were  speedily  con- 
vinced that  his  professions  were  in-sincere. 

18.  Hear,  father,  hear  our  prayer? 

Long  hath  thy  goodness  our  footsteps  attended. 

19.  That  very  law  that  molds  a  tear, 

And  bids  it  trickle  from  its  source, 
That  law  preserves  the  earth  a  sphere, 
And  guides  the  planets  in  their  course. — Rogers. 

20.  Why  restless,  why  cast  down,  my  soul? 

Hope  still,  and  thou  shalt  sing 
The  praise  of  Him  who  is  thy  God, 
Thy  Savior,  and  thy  king. 

21.  If  parts  allure  thee,  think  how  Bacon  shined, 
The  wisest,  brightest,  meanest  of  mankind. — Pope. 

22.  If  goodness  lead  him  not,  yet  weariness 
May  toss  him  to  my  heart. — Geo.  Herbert 

Passive  Forms.  1.  He  was  beaten  with  many  stripes.  2.  The 
sheep  were  destroyed  by  wolves.  3.  Every  crime  should  be 
punished.  4.  You,  he,  and  I  were  invited.  5.  America  was 
discovered  by  Christopher  Columbus.  6.  He  has  been  elected 
mayor  of  our  city.     7.  The  work  might  have  been  finished. 

Progressive,   Emphatic,   and   Interrogative   Forms.     1.  He  is 

writing  a  letter.  2.  They  should  have  been  studying  their 
lessons.  3.  They  were  digging  for  gold.  4.  I  do  wish  you 
were  here.  5.  He  did  not  commit  forgery.  6.  How  do  you 
learn  so  fast?  7.  Why  does  he  persist  in  denying  it?  8. 
Where  were  you  going  when  I  met  you? 


125.  CAUTIONS. 

Caution  I. — General  truths  should  be  expressed  in  the 
present  tense. 

H.  G.-8. 


114  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

Ex. — 1.  I  have  always  thought  that  dew  fell.  2.  He  proved  that 
the  earth  was  round.  3.  I  should  think  it  was  time  for  the  bell  to 
ring.  4.  He  told  me  that  every  star  was  a  sun.  5.  I  did  not  know 
that  brass  was  made  of  zinc  and  copper.  6.  Heat  will  radiate  best 
from  rough  substances. 

Caution  II. — Do  not  use  the  perfect  participle  to  ex- 
press past  time,  nor  the  past  tense  form  instead  of  the 
perfect  participle. 

Ex. — 1.  I  come  here  last  Saturday.  2.  John  done  it:  I  seen  him. 
3.  I  have  saw  an  old  friend  to-day.  4.  The  bridge  had  fell:  it  was 
broken  in  two.  5.  The  cars  have  ran  off  the  track.  6.  The  bells 
ringed  when  we  come  into  town.  7.  The  letter  was  wrote  in  haste. 
8.  He  has  went  and  brung  some  snow  into  the  house.  9.  The  wind 
has  blowed  the  fence  down. 

10.  His  face  has  wore  a  sad  expression  for  some  time.  11.  He 
laid  down  a  while.  12.  Charles  winned  the  prize.  13.  The  vessel 
springed  a  leak.  14.  He  dumb  the  tree  and  shaked  the  chestnuts 
down.  15.  Have  the  cattle  been  drove  to  pasture?  16.  The  cloth 
was  weaved  beautiful.    17.  The  boy  had  swam  the  river. 

Caution  III. — In  the  use  of  words  in  sentences,  a  due 
regard  should  be  paid  to  expressed  or  implied  relations 
of  time. 

Ex. — 1.  He  was  tardy  every  day  this  week.  2.  After  I  learned 
my  lesson,  I  took  a  walk.  3.  They  have  visited  us  last  week. 
4.  He  was  under  obligations  to  have  assisted  me.  5.  John  was  ab- 
sent all  this  afternoon.  6.  I  know  the  family  more  than  twenty 
years.     7.  I  shall  live  here  ten  years  next  October. 

Caution  IV. — Do  not  use  is  n't  or  aint  for  is  not, 
have  n't  or  haint  for  have  not,  't  aint  for  it  is  not,  might 
of  for  might  have,  etc. 

Ex. — 1.  I  haint  learned  my  lesson.  2.  'Taint  right  to  disturb  the 
meeting.  3.  Aint  you  going  east  this  summer?  4.  You  might  of 
known  that  I  aint  well.  5.  He  could  of  helped  you,  and  you  should 
of  made  him  do  so. 

Caution  V. — Never  use  will  for  shall,  nor  would  for 
should,  etc. 


ETYMOLOGY— ADVERBS.  115 

Ex. — 1.  I  shall  go ;  no  one  will  prevent  me.  2.  I  should  be  sorry 
if  you  would  be  sick.  3.  If  I  would  earn  money,  I  would  save  it. 
4.  I  will  not  be  at  home  to-morrow  evening.  5.  We  will  receive 
our  pay  next  week.  6.  Would  we  have  a  pleasant  time  if  we 
should  go? 

Caution  VI. — Do  not  use  improper  passive  forms. 

Ex.-  1.  He  was  retired  from  active  service.  2.  He  is  possessed 
of  a  large  amount  of  bank  stock.  3.  He  was  just  returned  from 
Boston  when  I  saw  him.  4.  Evening  was  come  before  we  reached 
the  shore.    5.  The  men  were  all  agreed  on  that. 

Caution  VII. — In  expressing  a  supposition,  use  the 
subjunctive  mode  to  denote  doubt  or  denial,  and  the 
indicative  mode  to  express  a  fact  or  any  thing  assumed 
as  a  fact. 

Ex. — 1.  If  he  was  rich,  he  would  be  generous.  2.  Though  he 
falls,  he  shall  not  be  utterly  cast  down.  3.  If  it  rains,  I  shall  not 
go.  4.  Be  careful  lest  thou  fallest  into  bad  company.  5.  If  he  play, 
he  wins.    6.  If  he  is  not  engaged,  he  will  go  with  you. 


THE    ADVERB, 


126.  ORAL  LESSON. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Jane  sang  a  song** 
What  element  is  "song"?  Ans. —  An  objective  element. 
Why?  Ans. — Because  it  completes  the  meaning  of  the  predi- 
cate. Write  "Jane  sang  a  song  sweetly."  Does  "sweetly"  com- 
plete the  meaning  of  the  predicate?  Ans. — It  does  not.  What 
word  is  modified  by  it,  however?  Ans. — "Sang."  How  does 
it  modify  "sang"?    Ans. — It  tells  how  Jane  sang. 

Write  this  sentence:  "You  are  very  kind."  What  word  is 
modified  by  "very"?  Ans. — "Kind."  What  part  of  speech  is 
"kind"?  Ans. — An  adjective.  Write,  "A  letter,  hastily  writ- 
ten, was  sent  me  yesterday."  What  does  "hastily"  modify? 
Ans. — "Written."  What  part  of  speech  is  "written"?  Ans. — 
A  participle.     Write,   "The  letter   was   written  very  hastily," 


116  ENGLISH  GKAMMAE. 

What    does    "very"    modify?     Ans. — "Hastily."      What   does 
"hastily"  modify?     Ans. — "Was  written." 

Those  words,  and  all  others  used  in  a  similar  manner,  are 
called  Adverbs. 

127.  DEFINITION. 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
a  verb,  adjective,  participle,  or  an  adverb;  as,  "She 
sings  sweetly;"  "The  roads  are  very  rough;"  "The 
ranks  were  quickly  broken  ; "  "  He  reads  tolerably  well." 

Rem.  I.— An  adverb  is  equivalent  to  a  phrase  consisting  of 
a  preposition  and  its  object,  limited  by  an  adjective. 

Ex. — "He  walks  rapidly"  i.  e.,  He  walks  in  a  rapid  manner.  "He 
lives  there,"  i.  e.,  He  lives  at  that  place.  "  The  work  is  intensely  in- 
teresting," i.  e.,  The  work  is  interesting  in  an  intense  degree. 

Rem.  2. — An  adverb  sometimes  modifies  a  phrase  or  a  clause. 

Ex. — "He  sailed  nearly  round  the  globe;"  "The  old  man  likewise 
came  to  the  city."  In  the  first  sentence,  nearly  limits  the  phrase 
"round  the  globe;"  and  in  the  second,  likewise  modifies  the  entire 
proposition. 

128.   CLASSES. 

1.  With  respect  to  their  meaning  and  use,  adverbs 
are  divided  into  five  classes :  Adverbs  of  Time,  Place, 
Cause,  Manner,  and  Degree. 

2.  Adverbs  of  Time  answer  the  questions,  Wlienf 
How   longf     How   often  f 

Ex. — After,  again,  ago,  always,  anon,  early,  ever,  never,  forever, 
frequently,  hereafter,  hitherto,  immediately,  lately,  now,  often,  sel- 
dom, soon,  sometimes,  then,  when,  while,  weekly,  until,  yet,  etc. 

Rem. — To-day,  to-morrow,  to-night,  yesterday,  yesternight  (formerly 
written  yester  day  and  yester  night),  are  nouns,  not  adverbs. 
When  used  as  modifiers,  they  should,  in  most  instances,  be 
parsed  as  nouns  in  the  objective  case,  without  a  governing 
word.     (See  Eule  VIII.) 


ETYMOLOGY— ADVERBS.  H7 

Ex.— "He  will  come  to-day;"  "They  all  left  yesterday;"  "We 
had  a  severe  storm  yesternight," 

3.  Adverbs  of  Place  answer  the  questions,  Where  f 
Whither  f     Whence  f 

Ex. — Above,  below,  down,  up,  hither,  thither,  here,  there,  where, 
herein,  therein,  wherein,  hence,  thence,  whence,  every-where,  no- 
where, somewhere,  far,  yonder,  back,  forth,  aloof,  away,  aboard, 
aloft,  ashore,  backwards,  forwards,  first,  secondly,  wherever,  etc. 

Rem. — There  is  sometimes  used  as  an  expletive  to  introduce 
a  sentence;  as,  "There  were  giants  in  those  days;"  "Breathes 
there  a  man  with  soul  so  dead?" 

4.  Adverbs    of    Cause    answer   the   questions,    Why  f 

Wherefore  f 

Ex. — Wherefore,  therefore,  then,  why. 

5.  Adverbs  of  Manner  answer  the  question,  Howf 

Ex. — Amiss,  asunder,  anyhow,  well,  badly,  easily,  foolishly, 
sweetly,  certainly,  indeed,  surely,  verily,  nay,  no,  not,  nowise, 
haply,   perhaps,   perchance,   perad venture,   probably,   etc. 

Rem. — Most  adverbs  of  manner  are  formed  by  adding  ly  to 
adjectives  or  participles;    as,  wise,  wisely ;  united,  unitedly. 

6.  Adverbs  of  Degree  answer  the  questions,  How 
much?     How   little f 

Ex. — As,  almost,  altogether,  enough,  even,  equally,  much,  more, 
most,  little,  less,  least,  wholly,  partly,  only,  quite,  scarcely,  nearly, 
'excellently,  too,  chiefly,  somewhat,  etc. 

7.  Adverbs  which  show  the  manner  of  the  assertion 
are  called  modal  adverbs ;  as,  verily,  truly,  not,  no,  yes, 
etc. 

8.  When,  where,  why,  etc.,  when  used  in  asking  ques- 
tions, are  called  interrogative  adverbs. 

9.  An  Adverbial  Phrase  is  a  combination  of  words 
used  as  a  single  adverb. 


118  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 

Ex. — "  In  general ; "  "  hand  in  hand ; "  "  by  and  by ; "  "  through 
and  through ; "  "  no  more ; "  "  for  the  most  part ;  "  "  as  usual,"  etc. 
Such  combinations  may  be  parsed  as  single  adverbs. 

10.  Conjunctive  Adverbs  are  those  which  connect  sen- 
tences used  as  modifiers  and  the  term  modified. 

Ex. — "I  shall  see  you  again  when  I  return;"  "Go  where  glory 
waits  thee ; "  "I  have  been  to  Boston  since  I  saw  you  last ; "  " Pay 
your  bills  before  you  leave;"  "The  book  remained  where  I  left  it;" 
"  I  will  go  as  soon  as  I  have  eaten  my  dinner." 

Rem.  I. — The  clause  introduced  by  a  conjunctive  adverb 
modifies  some  word  in  the  principal  clause;  the  conjunctive 
adverb  itself  modifies  some  word  in  the  subordinate  clause. 
In  the  sentence,  "He  defends  himself  when  he  is  attacked," 
the  clause  "when  he  is  attacked"  modifies  "defends;"  "when" 
modifies  "  is  attacked,"  and  connects  the  two  clauses. 

Rem.  2. — The  principal  conjunctive  adverbs  are:  as,  after, 
before,  how,  since,  therefore,  till,  until,  when,  where,  wherefore,  while, 
and  why. 

129.   COMPARISON. 

Many  adverbs  admit  of  comparison. 

1.  Derivatives  ending  in  ly  are  usually  compared  by  prefix- 
ing more  and  most,  less  and  least  to  the  simple  form;  as,  wisely, 
more  wisely,  most  wisely ;  firmly,  less  firmly,  least  firmly. 

2.  Three  adverbs  are  compared  by  adding  er  and  est  to  the 
simple  form,  viz.:  fast,  faster,  fastest ;  often,  oftener,  oftenest;  soon, 
sooner,  soonest. 

3.  Some  adverbs  are  compared  irregularly;  as,  well,  better 
best;  ill,  worse,  worst;  little,  less,  least;  much,  more,  most,  etc. 


GENERAL    REMARKS. 

1.  Some  adverbs  seem  to  be  used  independently ;  as,  yes,  no, 
why,  well,  etc.,  in  certain  constructions.  They  may  be  parsed 
as  modifying  the  entire  proposition,  the  preceding  sentence, 
something  understood,  or,  as  independent. 


ETYMOLOGY— ADVEKBS.  119 

Ex.— "Have  you  my  book?— No."  "Wliy,  that  is  strange."  "Well, 
I  am  surprised."     "Yea,  the  Lord  sitteth  King  forever." 

2.  Certain  words  are  used  sometimes  as  adverbs  and  some- 
times as  adjectives.  They  are  adverbs  when  they  modify  verbs, 
adjectives,  and  other  adverbs,  and  adjectives  when  they  modify 
nouns  or  pronouns. 

Ex. — "  I  can  remain  no  longer ;  "  "  Let  no  man  deceive  you."  In 
the  first  sentence,  "  no "  is  an  adverb,  modifying  "  longer ; "  in  the 
second,  it  is  an  adjective,  modifying  "man." 

3.  In  such  expressions  as  "  He  works  for  hire  only''  "  One 
man  only  was  injured,"  "only"  is  an  adjective,  modifying  the 
preceding  noun.  "  He  sells  drugs  and  books  also."  Here 
"also"  is  an  adverb,  modifying  "sells"  understood.  "He  sells 
drugs,  and  he  also  sells  books." 


130.   ORDER  OF  PARSING-. 

1.  An  Adverb,  and  why? 

2.  Compare  it. 

3.  Tell  what  it  modifies. 

4.  Eule. 


131.   MODELS  FOR  PARSING-. 


I.  "  He  acted  wisely." 

Wisely is  an  adverb;  it  is  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 

a  verb:  compared,  wisely,  more  wisely,  most  wisely: 
it  is  an  adverb  of  manner,  and  modifies  "acted": 
Eule  XVIII :  "  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives, 
participles,  and  adverbs." 

II.  "Why  do  you  laugh?" 

Why is  an  adverb;  it  is  not  compared:  interrogative  adverbt 

and  modifies  "do  laugh":  Kule  XVIIL 


120  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR. 

III.  "They  walk  hand  in  hand." 

Hand  in  hand  is  an  adverbial  phrase;  it  is  a  combination  of  words 
used  as  a  simple  adverb:  it  modifies  "walk":  Rule 
XVIII. 

IV.  "I   shall  certainly  recover." 

Certainly  ...  is  an  adverb;  modal;  it  shows  the  manner  in  which 
the  assertion  is  made:  it  modifies  "shall  recover": 
Rule  XVIII. 

V.  "I  will  go  whenever  you  wish." 

Whenever  .  .  is  an  adverb;  conjunctive  adverb;  it  connects  two  clauses, 
and  modifies  "wish":  Rule  XVIII. 


132.  EXERCISES. 

Parse  the  adverbs  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  They  lived  very  happily.  2.  Why  do  you  look  so  sad? 
3.  When  spring  comes,  the  flowers  will  bloom.  4.  How  rapidly 
the  moments  fly!  5.  He  signed  it  then  and  there.  6.  I  have 
read  it  again  and  again.  7.  He  will  do  so  no  more.  8.  The 
mystery  will  be  explained  by  and  by.  9.  Perchance  you  are 
the  maii^ 

10.  Whither  has  he  gone?  11.  They  were  agreeably  disap- 
pointed. 12.  He  lives  just  over  the  hill  yonder.  13.  Hence- 
forth let  no  man  fear  that  God  will  forsake  us.  14.  I  saw 
him  before  he  left.  15.  I  will  not  be  unjust.  16.  I  have  not 
seen  him  since  I  returned  from  New  York.  17.  Doubtless,  ye 
are  the  people.     18.  Perhaps  I  shall  go. 

133.  CAUTIONS. 
Caution  I. — Do  not  use  adjectives  as  adverbs. 

Ex. — 1.  I  feel  tolerable  well,  I  thank  you.  2.  She  dresses  neat. 
3.  I  was  exceeding  glad  to  hear  from  you.  4.  He  was  that  angry 
he  could  scarce  speak.  5.  You  do  not  speak  distinct  enough.  6. 
You  ought  to  read  slower.  7.  He  was  near  famished.  8.  We 
walked  careful  over  the  rough  ground.  9.  You  ought  to  value 
his  friendship  higher. 


ETYMOLOGY— PREPOSITIONS.  121 

Caution  II. — Avoid  the  use  of  two  negatives  to  ex- 
press negation. 

Ex. — 1.  The  train  does  n't  wait  for  no  one.  2.  We  did  n't  find 
nobody  at  home.  3.  The  boys  don't  want  no  holidays.  4.  You 
don't  look  no  older  than  you  did  ten  years  ago.  5.  Nothing  can't 
be  done  about  it  now.  6.  The  doctor  said  she  would  never  be  no 
better,     7,  X  had  n't  no  money  left  when  I  got  home. 


THE    PREPOSITION 


134.   ORAL   LESSON. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Mr.  Olds  is  a  wealthy 
man."  What  element  is  "wealthy"?  Ans. — An  adjective  ele- 
ment. What  does  it  modify?  Ans, — "Man,"  Write  this  sen- 
tence: "Mr.  Olds  is  a  man  of  wealth."  You  see  that  "of 
wealth,"  in  this  sentence,  has  the  same  meaning  as  "wealthy" 
in  the  other.  What  part  of  speech  is  "wealth"?  Ans. — A 
noun.  The  word  "of"  connects  "man"  and  "wealth,"  and 
shows  the  relation  between  the  ideas  expressed  by  them.  In 
this  case,  the  relation  is  that  of  possession:  "man"  possesses 
"wealth."  Words  used  in  this  manner  are  called  Prepositions, 
because  they  are  usually  placed  before  nouns. 

In  the  sentence  "We  live  in  London,"  what  words  tell 
where  we  live?  Ans. — "In  London."  These  words  constitute 
what  is  called  a  phrase,  and  form  an  adverbial  element.  The 
word  limited  by  the  phrase  is  called  the  antecedent  term  of  re- 
lation, and  the  noun  following  the  preposition,  the  subsequent 
term,  or  object.  The  antecedent  term  may  be  any  thing  which 
can  be  modified,  but  the  subsequent  term  must  be  the  ob- 
jective case  of  a  noun  or  something  used  as  a  noun. 

In  the  sentence,  "I  recite  in  the  afternoon,"  what  is  the 
antecedent  term  of  relation?  Ans. — "Eecite."  Why?  Ans. — 
Because  it  is  the  word  which  is  modified  by  the  phrase  "  in 
the  afternoon."  What  is  the  subsequent  term,  or  object? 
Ans. — "Afternoon."  Why?  Ans. — Because  it  is  the  object  of 
the  preposition  "va.'* 


122  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 


135.   DEFINITION. 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  relation  be- 
tween its  object  and  some  other  word;  as,  "The  man  of 
Uz ; "  "  Ellen  is  walking  in  the  garden." 

Rem.  I. — A  preposition  and  its  object  form  a  separable 
phrase,  which  modifies  some  word  or  combination  of  words, 
called  the  antecedent  term  of  the  relation  expressed  by  the 
preposition;  the  object  of  the  preposition  being  the  subsequent 
term.  In  the  sentence,  "The  house  stands  on  a  hill,"  "stands" 
is  the  antecedent  term  of  relation,  and  "  hill "  the  subsequent. 

Rem.  2. — Two  prepositions  are  frequently  combined  and 
used  as  one;  as,  "He  came  from  over  the  sea;"  "The  church 
stands  over  against  the  school-house."  In  such  cases,  parse  the 
two  prepositions  as  one,  calling  the  combination  a  complex 
preposition. 

Rem.  3. — Sometimes  the  object  of  a  preposition  is  omitted, 
as,  "The  boys  went  out;"  "The  regiment  marched  by."  In 
such  cases,  parse  the  preposition  as  an  adverb. 

Rem.  4. — The  antecedent  term  is  sometimes  omitted;  as, 
"'From  Vermont?'  asked  the  landlord;"  "'As  to  that,'  said 
the  dial-plate."  In  such  cases,  parse  the  preposition  as  show- 
ing the  relation  between  its  object  and  an  antecedent  term 
understood. 

For,  in  the  complex  phrases,  "For  him  to  lie,"  "For  you  to 
deceive,"  etc.,  may  be  parsed  as  an  introductory  preposition. 

Rem.  5. — When  the  relations  between  objects  of  thought  are 
so  obvious  that  they  need  no  expression,  the  prepositions  aqp 
usually  omitted;  as,  "I  came  home  yesterday ;"  "He  is  worth  a 
million;"  "The  bridge  is  a  mile  long."  In  such  cases,  the  sub- 
sequent term  of  relation  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case 
without  a  governing  word. 


136.   LIST   OF   PREPOSITIONS. 

A  =  at,  on,  or  in;  "Be  quiet,  and  go  a-angling." 

Aboard ;  "Aboard  ships,  dull  shocks  are  sometimes  felt." 


ETYMOLOGY— PKEPOSITIONS.  123 

About;  "It  was  a  day  to  be  at  home,  crowding  about  the 

fire" 

Above ;  "Above  your  voices  sounds  the  wail  of  starving  men." 

According  to ;  "  Proceed  according  to  law." 

Across;  "Their  way  was  across  a  stretch  of  open  meadow." 

After ;  "After  life's  fitful  fever,  he  sleeps  well." 

Against ;  "  Uplift  against  the  sky,  your  mighty  shapes." 

Along ;  "  I  hear  the  waves  resounding  along  the  shore." 

Amid,  amidst;  "A  lark  reared  her  brood  amid  the  corn." 

Among,  amongst;  "He  was  always  foremost  among  them." 

Around  ;  "  I  hear  around  me  cries  of  fear." 

As  to;   Ms  to  the  parts  of  the  cargo,   they  were  already 

made  fast." 

At;  "She  is  at  church;"  "The  bell  rings  at  noon." 
Athwart;  "Athwart  the  waste  the  pleasant  home-light  shines." 
Before;  "Who  shall  go  before  them?"     "I  left  before  sunrise." 
Behind ;  "  We  have  seen  the  moon  rising  behind  the  eastern 

pines." 

Below ;  "  It  was  on  the  road  to  Kennebec,  below  the  town  of 

Bath." 

Beneath ;  "  The  steps  creaked  beneath  his  noiseless  tread." 
Beside;  "I  sat  beside  her;"  "He  is  beside  himself." 
Besides;  "There  is  nothing  at  all  besides  this  manna." 
Between ;  "  The  town  is  situated  between  two  mountains." 
Betwixt;  "The  waters  roll  betwixt  him  and  the  wooded  knoll." 
-Beyond;  "His  thoughts  turned  to  his  home  beyond  the  sea." 
But  =  except;  "He  had  retained  nothing  but  his  father's  belt." 
By ;  "  Strength  came  by  working  in  the  mines." 
Concerning ;  "  The  Lord  hath  spoken  good  concerning  Israel." 
Down  ;  "  They  wandered  in  throngs  down  the  valley." 
During ;  "  He  stayed  at  home  during  the  war." 
Ere;  "Nile  flowed  ere  the  wonted  season." 
Except;  "Are  they  all  gone  except  you?" 
For;  "  I  looked  up  for  a  moment;  "  "  I  sell  for  cash." 
From ;  "  He  felt  like  a  leaf  torn  from  a  romance." 


124  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

In ;  "  Late  in  life,  he  began  life  in  earnest." 

Into ;  "  He  gazed  into  the  vast  surrounding  darkness." 

Like ;  "  He  ran  like  a  deer." 

Notwithstanding;  "He  is  proud,  notwithstanding  his  poverty." 

Of;  "Tis  the  middle  watch  of  &  summer's  night." 

Off;  "The  vessel  was  becalmed  of  Cuba." 

On ;  "  He  sprang  on  a  rock ; "  "I  leave  on  Saturday." 

Out  of;  "  No  one  was  moving,  at  least  out  of  doors." 

Over;  "The  billows  had  rolled  over  him;"  "He  rules  over  us." 

Past;  "  He  drove  past  our  house  this  morning." 

Round ;  "A  shoreless  ocean  tumbled  round  the  globe." 

Save ;  "  Silent  is  all  save  the  dropping  rain." 

Since ;  "  The  Lord  hath  blessed  thee  since  my  coming." 

Till,  until ;  "  Not  till  the  next  morning  did  the  boys  appear." 

Through ;  "  Then  stept  she  down  through  town  and  field." 

Throughout;  "There  was  much  anxiety  felt  throughout  the 
land." 

To ;  "  Let  the  old  tree  go  down  to  the  earth." 
Toward,  towards ;  "  He  turned  me  toward  the  moonlight." 
Under;  "He  stands  erect  under  the  curved  roof." 
Unto;  "Verily,  I  say  unto  you." 
Up ;  "  He  sailed  up  the  river." 

Upon  ;  "  They  were  walking  upon  the  hurricane  deck  " 
With ;  "  The  sky  was  red  with  flame." 

Within;  "Something  of  ambition  and  pride  stirred  within 
him." 

Without;  "The  morning  broke  without  a  sun." 

Rem.  I. — The  following  prepositions,  less  commonly  used, 
may  be  added  to  the  foregoing  list: 

Abaft,  aloft,  alongside,  afore,  adown,  aloof  aneath,  aslant,  atween, 
atwixt,  despite,  inside,  outside,  maugre,  minus,  plus,  per,  sans,  under- 
neath, versus,  via,  as  for,  along  with,  despite  of,  from  among,  from  be- 
fore, from  betwixt,  from  off,  from  under,  off  of,  over  against,  round 
about,  but  for;  and  the  participial  forms  excepting,  regarding, 
bating,  touching,  respecting,  etc.,  when  followed  by  objects. 


ETYMOLOGY-PKEPOSITIONS.  125 

Rem.  2. — But,  for,  since,  and  some  others,  are  frequently  used 
as  conjunctions;  as,  "  I  must  go,  for  it  is  late." 


137.  ORDER  OF  PARSING. 

1.  A  Preposition,  and  why? 

2.  What  relation  does  it  show? 

3.  Rule. 


138.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING-. 

I.  "The  horse  ran  over  the  hill.'' 

Over is  a  'preposition;  it  is  a  word  used  to  show  the  rela- 
tion between  its  object  and  some  other  word :  it  shows 
the  relation  between  "hill"  aud  "ran:"  Rule  XIX: 
"A  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its  object  to  the 
word  upon  which  the  latter  depends." 


II.  "  He  came  out  from  under  the  bridge." 

From  under  is  a  complex  preposition;  it  shows  the  relation  between 
"bridge"  and  "came."    Eule  XIX. 


139.   EXERCISES. 

Parse  the  prepositions  in  the  following  sentences: 

1.  Will  you  go  with  me  into  the  garden?  2.  In  my  Father's 
house  are  many  mansions.  3.  We  went  over  the  river,  through 
the  corn-fields,  into  the  woods  yonder.  4.  I  am  not  satisfied 
as  to  that  affair.  5.  All  came  but  Mary.  6.  The  Rhone  flows 
out  from  among  the  Alps.  7.  He  went  from  St.  Louis,  across 
the  plains,  to  California.  8.  Light  moves  in  straight  lines, 
and  in  all  directions  from  the  point  of  emission.  9.  They 
went  aboard  the  ship. 

10.  Night,  sable  goddess!  from  her  ebon  throne, 
In  rayless  majesty,  now  stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  scepter  o'er  a  slumbering  world. —  Young. 


126  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


140.    CAUTION. 

Caution. — Care  should  be  taken  to  select  such  prepo- 
sitions as  express  the  relations  intended. 

Ex. — Among,  amongst,  are  applicable  to  more  than  two  objects  ? 
as,  "He  divided  the  estate  among  the  four  brothers:"  between,  be- 
twixt, are  applicable  to  two  objects  only ;  as,  "  He  divided  the  estate 
between  the  two  brothers." 

During  should  be  used  when  the  event  continues  through  all 
the  period  mentioned ;  as,  "  I  have  examined  law  papers  during 
the  day:"  in,  at,  or  within,  when  the  event  does  not  continue  dur- 
ing, the  whole  period;  as,  "I  alluded  to  that  in  my  remarks  this 
morning ; "  "  The  principal  must  be  paid  within  the  year." 

Of  denotes  possession  of  a  quality  or  thing;  as,  "He  is  a  friend 
of  mine:"  to  denotes  that  the  quality  or  thing  is  directed  towards 
something  else;  as,  "He  has  been  a  friend  to  me." 

In  or  at  is  used  before  the  names  of  countries,  cities,  and  towns; 
as,  "  She  lives  in  New  York ; "  "  They  reside  at  Glendale ;  "  "  We 
stayed  in  London." 

Into  should  be  used  after  verbs  denoting  entrance ;  as,  "  He  came 
into  the  office ; "   "  He  put  the  knife  into  his  pocket." 

At  is  generally  used  after  to  be,  not  followed  by  a  predicate; 
as,  "They  are' at  home;"  "She  is  at  church."  When  a  predicate 
is  understood,  or  clearly  implied,  to  should  be  used;  as,  "I  have 
been  to   Cincinnati,"   i.  e.,   I   have   been   (traveling)    to   Cincinnati. 

Of,  not  about,  should  be  used  after  boast  and  brag ;  as,  "  He 
boasts  of  his  wealth ; "   "  He  brags  of  his  strength." 

Upon  should  follow  bestow  and  dependent ;  as,  "  Many  favors  were 
bestowed  upon  me ; "    "  He  is  dependent  upon  his  friends." 

From  should  follow  differ  and  dissent ;  as,  "I  differ  from  you ; " 
"  I  dissent  from  that  decision." 

Of  should  follow  diminution;  as,  "Any  diminution  of  expenses 
is  impossible." 

In  should  follow  confide;  as,  "I  confide  in  you." 

Of  should  be  used  when  we  are  disappointed  in  obtaining  a  thing; 
as,  "I  was  disappointed  of  money:"  in,  when  we  are  disappointed 


ETYMOLOGY— CONJUNCTIONS.  127 

in  the  quality  of  a  thing,  or  the  character  of  a  person;  as,  "I 
am  disappointed  in  that  mower ; "  "I  am  disappointed  in  Mr. 
Johnson." 

With  denotes  an  instrument ;  by,  a  cause :  with,  the  immediate, 
by,  the  remoter  means;  as,  "A  man  is  killed  with  a  sword,  and 
dies  by  violence ; "  "  He  walks  with  a  cane  by  moonlight." 

Correct  the  following  exercises  : 

1.  Divide  the  money  among  the  two  boys.  2.  I  will  pay 
you  sometime  during  next  week.  3.  Washington  was  a  friend 
of  his  country.  4.  He  put  the  money  in  his  pocket.  5.  Where 
is  the  key  to  that  trunk?  6.  We  arrived  in  Cleveland  on 
Friday.  7.  I  differ  with  you  on  that  question.  8.  Never  de- 
part out  of  the  straight  path.  9.  He  went  out  of  a  fine  morn- 
ing, with  a  bundle  in  his  hand. 

10.  I  wish  I  had  staid  to  home.  11.  He  depends  on  his 
daily  labor  for  his  support.  12.  He  boasted  about  his  stand- 
ing  in   society.     13.  My  father   and   mother   are   to   church. 

14.  The  still,  sultry  morning  was  followed  with  a  hail-storm. 

15.  He  was  eager  of  making  money.  16.  I  can  make  no  dim- 
inution in  my  tuition  rates.  17.  He  has  gone  west,  accom- 
panied with  his  wife.  18.  We  ought  to  profit  from  the  errors 
of  others,     19.  You  look  different  to  what  I  supposed. 


THE    CONJUNCTION, 


141.   ORAL  LESSON. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Emma  and  Eva  study  algebra,"  what  is 
the  subject?  Ans. — " Emma  and  Eva.''  Why?  Ans. — Because 
something  is  affirmed  of  them.  That  is  right.  They  are  both 
subjects  of  the  same  predicate;  and  to  indicate  that  they  both 
sustain  the  same  relation  to  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  they  are 
joined  by  the  word  "and."  This  is  called  a  Conjunction,  be- 
cause its  use  is  to  join  words.  It  is  a  coordinate  conjunction, 
because  it  joins  elements  of  the  same  rank  or  name. 

In  the  sentence,  "Emma  will  study  algebra,  if  Eva  does 
not,"  "if"  is  a  conjunction,  but  it  joins  elements  of  different 


128  ENGLISH   GEAMMAR 

rank  or  name.  It  connects  "will  study"  and  "Eva  does 
not."  Those  conjunctions  which  join  elements  of  different 
rank  or  name,  are  called  subordinate  conjunctions. 

In  the  sentence,  "Both  Emma  and  Eva  study  algebra," 
"both"  and  "and"  are  called  correlative  conjunctions,  because 
each  answers  or  refers  to  the  other. 


142.  DEFINITION. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  sen- 
tences, and  parts  of  sentences. 

Ex. — "  The  horse  and  wagon  were  captured,  but  the  driver  es- 
caped;" "He  lives  out  of  town,  and  on  a  farm."  In  the  first  sen- 
tence, "  and  "  connects  "  horse  "  and  "  wagon,"  and  "  but "  connects 
the  two  propositions,  "the  horse  and  wagon  were  captured"  and 
"the  driver  escaped."  In  the  second  sentence,  "and"  connects  the 
phrases  "  out  of  town  "  and  "  on  a  farm." 

Rem. — Conjunctions  sometimes  merely  introduce  sentences; 
as,  "And  it  came  to  pass  in  those  days;"  "That  the  times  are 
hard,  is  undeniable." 


143.   CLASSES  OP  CONJUNCTIONS. 

1.  Conjunctions  are  divided  into  two  general  classes: 
Coordinate  and  Subordinate. 

2.  Coordinate  Conjunctions  are  those  which  join  ele* 
ments  of  the  same  rank  or  name. 

Rem. — Coordinate  conjunctions  form  no  part  of  the  material 
of  which  a  sentence  is  composed — their  use  being  to  unite  the 
material  into  a  single  sentence.  They  may  be  classified  as 
follows : 

1.  Copulative,  denoting  addition  merely;  as,  and1  also,  further, 
moreover,  etc. 

2.  Adversative,  denoting  opposition  of  meaning;  as,  but,  still, 
yet,  only,  however,  notwithstanding,  etc. 


ETYMOLOGY— CONJUNCTIONS.  129 

3.  Alternative,  denoting  that  which  may  be  chosen  or 
omitted;  as,  else,  otherwise,  or,  nor,  either,  etc. 

4.  Illative,  implying  a  consequence  or  inference  following 
from  what  has  been  said;  as,  hence,  thence,  then,  therefore,  where- 
fore, for,  because,  so,  consequently,  accordingly,  etc. 

3.  Subordinate  Conjunctions  are  those  which  join  ele- 
ments of  different  ranks  or  names. 

Rem. — Subordinate  conjunctions  may  be  classified  as  fol- 
lows: 

1.  Causal,  denoting  effect,  condition,  reason,  result,  or  pur- 
pose; as,  that,  so  that,  if,  unless,  except,  as,  because,  since,  although, 
though,  for,  whereas,  inasmuch  as,  lest,  etc. 

2.  Temporal,  denoting  time;  as,  ere,  after,  before,  until,  whilst, 
when,  etc. 

3.  Local,  denoting  rest  in,  or  motion  to  or  from  place;   as, 

where,  there,  whence,  thence,  whither,  thither,  etc. 

4.  Of  manner  or  degree,  denoting  likeness,  equality,  and  ex- 
cess or  deficiency;  as,  as,  as  if,  how,  although,  than,  so  as,  etc. 

Rem.  I. — Correlative  Conjunctions  are  coordinate  or  subordi- 
nate conjunctions  used  in  pairs,  one  referring  or  answering 
to  the  other;  as,  both  .  .  and,  as  .  .  as,  if  .  .  then,  so  .  .  as, 
notwithstanding  .  .  yet,  though  .  .  yet,  either  .  .  or,  nor  .  .  nor, 
neither   .    .    nor,  etc. 

Ex. — 1.  He  is  both  learned  and  wise.  2.  I  am  as  tall  as  you. 
3.  As  it  was  then,  so  it  is  now.  4.  Though  deep,  yet  clear.  5.  If 
he  confessed  it,  then  forgive  him. 

Rem.  2. — Many  of  the  subordinate  conjunctions  are  fre- 
quently used  as  adverbs  or  conjunctive  adverbs.  (See  Sec. 
128.) 

Rem.  3. — Certain  combinations  of  words  have  the  force  of 
connectives,  and  should  be  parsed  as  conjunctions  or  conjunc- 
tive adverbs.  They  are:  as  if,  as  well  as,  except  that,  forasmuch 
as,  but  also,  but  likewise,  notwithstanding  that,  not  only,  etc. 

Ex. — 1.  Facts  may  be  transmitted  by  tradition  as  well  as  by  his- 
tory.   2.  You  talk  as  if  you  were  an  idiot. 


130  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


144.   ORDER  OF  PARSING-. 

1    A  conjunction,  and  why? 

2.  Coordinate  or  subordinate,  and  why? 

3.  What  does  it  connect? 

4.  Rule. 


145.  MODELS  FOR  PARSING. 

I.  "  He  came  and  went  like  a  pleasant  thought." 

And  *  .  .  .  is  a  conjunction ;  it  connects  words;  coordinate;  it  denotes 
addition:  it  connects  "came"  and  "went."  Rule  XX: 
"Coordinate  conjunctions  join  similar  elements." 

II.  "He  learns,  because  he  is  studious." 

Because  .  is  a  conjunction;  subordinate;  it  joins  dissimilar  elements; 
it  connects  "learns"  and  "he  is  studious."     Rule  XXI. 

III.  "Neither  James  nor  John  had  his  lesson." 

Neither  .  .  nor  .  .  are  conjunctions;  correlative;  one  refers  or  answers 
to  the  other :  "  neither "  introduces  the  sentence,  and 
"nor"  connects  "James"  and  "John."     Rule  XX. 

IV.  "Unto  us  was  the  gospel  preached  as  well  as  unto  them." 

As  well  as  is  a  conjunction;  copulative;  it  connects  and  emphatically 
distinguishes  the  two  phrases,  "unto  us"  and  "unto 
them:"  Rule  XX. 


146.  EXERCISES. 

Parse  all  the  words  in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  I  am  a  poor  man,  and  argue  with  you,  and  convince  you. 
2.  He'd  sooner  die  than  ask  you,  or  any  man,  for  a  shilling, 
i  Talent  is  something,   but   tact  is  every  thing.     4.  Neither 


ETYMOLOGY— CONJUNCTIONS.  131 

military  nOr  civil  pomp  wak  wanting.  5.  The  truth  is,  that  I 
am  tired  of  ticking.  6.  I  remember  a  mass  of  things,  but 
nothing  distinctly. 

7.  I  alone  was  solitary  and  idle.  8.  Both  the  ties  of  nature 
and  the  dictates  of  policy  demand  this.  9.  There  was  no  re- 
ply, for  a  slight  fear  was  upon  every  man.  10.  No  man  more 
highly  esteems  or  honors  the  British  troops  than  I  do.  11. 
The  soldier  marches  on  and  on,  inflicting  and  suffering,  as 
before.  12.  There  may  be  wisdom  without  knowledge,  and 
there  may  be  knowledge  without  wisdom. 

13.  Not  a  having  and  resting,  but  a  growing  and  becoming, 
is  the  true  character  of  perfection  as  culture  conceives  it. — 
Shairp.  14.  Men  must  be  taught  as  if  you  taught  them  not. — 
Pope.  15.  Essex  had  neither  the  virtues  nor  the  vices  which 
enable  men  to  retain  greatness  long. — Macaulay.  16.  How  long 
didst  thou  think  that  his  silence  was  slumber? — Scott. 

17.  Vice  is  a  monster  of  so  frightful  mien, 
As  to  be  hated  needs  but  to  be  seen; 
But  seen  too  oft,  familiar  with  her  face, 
We  first  endure,  then  pity,  then  embrace. — Pope. 


147.  CAUTIONS. 

Caution  I. — Do  not  use  like  or  with  for  as,  but  for 
than,  that  for  why,  or  without  for  unless. 

Ex.— 1.  They  live  in  houses  like  we  do.  2.  We  ought  to  be  in- 
dustrious and  economical,  like  our  forefathers  were.  3.  The  answer 
is  the  same  with  that  in  the  book.  4.  He  reads  for  no  other  pur- 
pose but  to  pass  away  the  time.  5.  This  is  the  reason  that  I  staid, 
at  home.    6.  I  shall  not  go  without  you  go  with  me. 

Caution  II. — Do  not  use  as  well  as  or  together  with 
for  and,  nor  how  for  that,  or  in  its  stead. 

Ex. — 1.  I,  as  well  as  my  sister,  were  at  the  concert  last  evening. 
2.  Mr.  Brown,  together  with  Mr.  Shriver,  are  opening  a  new  coal 
mine.  3.  He  told  me  how  that  he  was  going  to  Oregon.  4.  Father 
said  how  he  believed  he  would  sell  his  farm. 


132  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 


THE    INTERJECTION. 


148.  DEFINITION. 

An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  to  denote  some  sud 
den  or  strong  emotion;   as,  "Hark!  some  one  comes.;> 
"Pshaw  !  that  is  ridiculous/' 

The  principal  interjections  are  the  following: 

Ah,  aha,  hurra,  huzza;  oh,  alas,  welladay,  alack;  ha,  indeed, 
zounds;  bravo;  faugh,  fie,  fudge,  pshaw;  heigh-ho;  ha,  ha,  ha 
{laughter);  avaunt,  begone;  hail,  all-hail;  adieu,  farewell,  good- 
by;  hallo,  ahoy,  lo,  hark;  hist,  whist,  hush,  tush;  avast,  hold; 
eh?  hey? 

Rem.  I. — Interjections  have  no  definite  meaning  or  gram- 
matical construction.  They  occur  frequently  in  colloquial  or 
impassioned  discourse;  but  are  expressions  of  emotion  only, 
and  can  not  be  used  as  signs  of  thought.  As  their  name  im- 
ports, they  may  be  thrown  in  between  connected  parts  of  dis- 
course, but  are  generally  found  at  the  commencement  of 
sentences. 

Rem.  2. — Other  parts  of  speech,  when  used  as  exclamations, 
may  be  treated  as  interjections ;  as,  "  What !  art  thou  mad  ?  " 
"My  stars!  what  can  all  this  be?"  "Revenge!  about, — seek, — 
burn,— fire, — kill, — slay! — let  not  a  traitor  live!"  In  most  cases, 
however,  words  thus  used  may  be  parsed  otherwise;  as,  " 'Mag- 
nificent!' cried  all  at  once."  "Magnificent"  may  be  parsed  as 
an  adjective,  the  predicate  of  the  sentence,  "It  is  magnificent.1' 
"Behold!  your  house  is  left  unto  you  desolate!"  "Behold" 
may  be  parsed  as  a  verb  in  the  imperative  mode. 


149.   ORDER  OF  PARSING. 

1.  An  Interjection,  and  why? 

2.  Eule. 


ETYMOLOGY— EXEECISES.  133 


150.  MODEL  FOR  PARSING. 


I.  "O,  let  me  live." 

0  .  .  is  an  interjection;  it  denotes  some  strong  emotion:  Rule  XXII: 
"An  interjection  has  no  dependence  upon  other  words." 


151.  EXERCISES. 

Parse  all  the  words  in  the  following  sentences : 

I.  Ha!  laughest  thou?  2.  Heigh!  sirs,  what  a  noise  you 
make  here.  3.  Huzza !  huzza !  long  live  Lord  Robin !  4.  Hah ! 
it  is  a  sight  to  freeze  one.  5.  Let  them  be  desolate  for  a  re- 
ward of  their  shame  which  say  unto  me,  Aha !  aha  I 

6.  Oh,  that  the  salvation  of  Israel  were  come  out  of  Zion! 
7.  Alas!  all  earthly  good  ctill  blends  itself  with  home!  8. 
Tush!  tush!  man,  I  made  no  reference  to  you.  9.  Hark! 
what  nearer  war-drum  shakes  the  gale?  10.  Soft!  I  did  but 
dream ! 

II.  What!  old  acquaintance!  could  not  all  this  flesh 
Keep  in  a  little  life  ?     Poor  Jack,  farewell ! 

I  could  have  better  spared  a  better  man. — Shakespeare. 


152.   MISCELLANEOUS  EXERCISES. 

1.  A  mercenary  informer  knows  no  distinction.  2.  I  send 
you  here  a  sort  of  allegory.  3,  Our  island  home  is  far  beyond 
the  sea.  4.  Love  took  up  the  harp  of  life,  and  smote  on  all 
the  chords  with  might.  5.  Your  If  is  the  only  peace-maker: 
much  virtue  in  If.     6.  He  is  very  prodigal  of  his  ohs  and  ahs. 

7.  He  looked  upward  at  the  rugged  heights  that  towered 
above  him  in  the  gloom.  8.  He  possessed  that  rare  union  of 
reason,  simplicity,  and  vehemence,  which  formed  the  prince 
of  orators.  9.  Mark  well  my  fall,  and  that  that  ruined  me. — 
Shakespeare.  10.  The  jingling  of  the  guinea  helps  the  hurt 
that  honor  feels. — Tennyson. 


134  ENGLISH   GKAMMAR 

11.  His  qualities  were  so  happily  blended,  that  the  re- 
sult was  a  great  and  perfect  whole.  12.  There  is  no  joy  but 
calm.  13.  I  must  be  cruel,  only  to  be  kind.  14.  Why  are 
we  weighed  upon  with  heaviness?  15.  Now  blessings  light 
on  him  that  first  invented  sleep:  it  covers  a  man  all  over, 
thoughts  and  all,  like  a  cloak. — Cervantes.  « 

i  16.  Many  a  morning  on  the  moorlands  did  we  hear  the 
copses  ring. — Tennyson.  17.  He  stretched  out  his  right  hand 
at  these  words,  and  laid  it  gently  on  the  boy's  head. — Dickens. 
18.  He  acted  ever  as  if  his  country's  welfare,  and  that  alone, 
was  the  moving  spirit.  19.  The  great  contention  of  criticism 
is  to  find  the  faults  of  the  moderns,  and  the  beauties  of  the 
ancients.  "Whilst  an  author  is  yet  living,  we  estimate  his  pow- 
ers by  his  worst  performance;  and  when  he  is  dead,  we  esti- 
mate them  by  his  best. — Johnson. 

20.  I  will  work  in  my  own  sphere,  nor  wish  it  other  than 
it  is.  21.  As  his  authority  was  undisputed,  so  it  required  no 
jealous  precautions,  no  rigorous  severity.  22.  Like  all  men 
of  genius,  he  delighted  to  take  refuge  in  poetry.  23.  To 
know  how  to  say  what  other  people  only  think,  is  what 
makes  men  poets  and  sages;  and  to  dare  to  say  what  others 
only  dare  to  think,  makes  men  martyrs  or  reformers,  or  both. 
24.  That  done,  she  turned  to  the  old  man  with  a  lovely  smile 
upon  her  face — such,  they  said,  as  they  had  never  seen,  and 
never  could  forget — and  clung  with  both  her  arms  about  his 
neck. — Dickens. 

25.  To  live  in  hearts  we  leave  behind, 

Is  not  to  die. — Campbell. 

26.  But  war's  a  game  which,  were  their  subjects  wise, 

Kings  would  not  play  at. — Cowper. 

27.  Whoever  thinks  a  faultless  piece  to  see, 

Thinks  what  ne'er  was,  nor  is,  nor  e'er  shall  be. — Pope, 

28.  The  Niobe  of  nations,  there  she  stands, 

Childless  and  crownless,  in  her  voiceless  woe; 
An  empty  urn  within  her  withered  hands, 

Whose  holy  dust  was  scattered  long  ago. — Byron. 

29.  Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 

Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath  ? 
Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  sleeping  dust, 

Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  death? — Gray. 


ETYMOLOGY— EXERCISES.  135 

30.  Forth  from  his  dark  and  lonely  hiding-place, 
(  Portentous  sight !  )  the  owlet  Atheism, 
Sailing  on  obscure  wings  athwart  the  noon, 
Drops  his  blue-fringed  lids,  and  holds  them  close, 
And  hooting  at  the  glorious  sun  in  heaven, 
Cries  o$t,  "Where  is  it?" — Coleridge. 

31.  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever; 
Its  loveliness  increases;  it  will  never 
Pass  into  nothingness. — Keats. 

32.  Dry  clank' d  his  harness  in  the  icy  caves 
And  barren  chasms,  and  all  to  left  and  right 

The  bare  black  cliff  clang'd  round  him,  as  he  based 
His  feet  on  jets  of  slippery  crag  that  rang 
Sharp-smitten  with  the  dint  of  armed  heels. — Tennyson. 

33.  Then  came  wandering  by 
A  shadow,  like  an  angel  with  bright  hair 
Dabbled  in  blood;  and  he  shriek'd  out  aloud: 
"Clarence  is  come!  false,  fleeting,  perjur'd  Clarence! 
That  stabbed  me  in  the  field  by  Tewksbury: 

Seize  on  him,  furies,  take  him  to  your  torments !  " — 

Shakespeare. 

34.  There  are  things  of  which  I  may  not  speak : 

There  are  dreams  that  can  not  die : 
There  are  thoughts  that  make  the  strong  heart  weak, 
And  bring  a  pallor  upon  the  cheek, 
And  a  mist  before  the  eye. 
And  the  words  of  that  fatal  song 
Come  over  me  like  a  chill: 
"A  boy's  will  is  the  wind's  will, 
And  the  thoughts  of  youth  are  long,  long  thoughts." — 

Longfellow. 

35.  These  ages  have  no  memory,  but  they  left 

A  record  in  the  desert — columns  strown 
On  the  waste  sands,  and  statues  fallen  and  cleft, 

Heap'd  like  a  host  in  battle  overthrown; 
Vast  ruins,  where  the  mountain's  ribs  of  stone 

Were  hewn  into  a  city:  streets  that  spread 
In  the  dark  earth,  where  never  breath  has  blown 

Of  heaven's  sweet  air,  nor  foot  of  man  dares  tread, 
The  long  and  perilous  ways — the  Cities  of  the  Dead. — 

Bryant. 


PART     III 


SYNTAX. 

153.   PRELIMINARY  ORAL  LESSONS. 

Note  to  teachers. — The  object  of  these  lessons  is:  (1)  To  exer- 
cise pupils  in  the  construction  of  simple  sentences;  (2)  To  teach 
the  uses  and  definitions  of  the  elements  of  a  sentence ;  (3)  To  teach 
the  analysis  of  sentences  containing  elements  of  the  first  class. 

Use  Oral  Lesson  on  page  29  as  introductory  to  these. 

LESSON   I. 

I  hold  in  my  hand  a  piece  of  chalk:  what  is  its  color? 
Arts. — It  is  white.  It  breaks  easily:  what  else  can  be  said  of 
it?  Ans. — It  is  brittle.  It  crumbles  readily:  hence,  we  say  it 
is  friable.  Each  of  the  words,  white,  brittle,  friable,  expresses 
some  quality  belonging  to  chalk:  what  shall  we  call  them? 
Ans. —  Quality-words.  We  will  now  unite  these  quality-words  with 
"chalk,"  by  the  word  "is,"  thus: 

Chalk  is  white. 
Chalk  is  brittle. 
Chalk  is  friable. 

Each  of  these  groups  of  words  is  called  a  Sentence ;  for 
"A  Sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making  complete 
sense." 

Write  the  definition  on  your  slates.     Now  repeat  it  in  con- 
cert.    Each  group  is  also  called  a  Proposition;  for 
"A  Proposition  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words." 
Write  this  definition  on  your  slates.     Repeat  it  in  concert. 

(136) 


SYNTAX— OEAL   LESSONS.  137 

In  the  proposition  "Chalk  is  white,"  the  noun  "chalk"  is 
called  the  Subject;  for 

"The  Subject  of  a  proposition  is  that  of  which  something 
is  affirmed." 

"  White "  is  called  the  Predicate ;  for 

"The  Predicate  of  a  proposition  is  that  which  is  affirmed 
of  the  subject." 

The  word  "is"  is  called  the  Copula;  for 
"  The  Copula   is  a  word  or  group  of  words  used  to  join  a 
predicate  to  a  subject,  and  to  make  an  assertion." 

In  this  sentence  it  affirms  that  the  quality  "white"  be- 
longs to  "  chalk." 

Write  these  definitions  on  your  slates.  Repeat  them  in 
concert. 

In  the  proposition,  "Chalk  is  brittle,"  what  is  the  subject? 
Ans. — "Chalk."  Why?  Arts. — It  is  that  of  which  something 
is  affirmed.  What  is  the  predicate?  Ans. — "Brittle."  Why? 
Ans. — It  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 


Affirm  qualities  of  the  following 

Iron,  gold,  silver,  lead,  ink,  cork,  sugar,  vinegar,  grass, 
books,   lessons. 

Model. — Iron  is  heavy. 

Affirm  the  following  qualities  of  appropriate  subjects : 

Transparent,  opaque,  hard,  round,  square,  good,  bad,  bitter, 
heavy,  rough,  smooth,  red,  yellow,  green. 

Model. — Glass  is  transparent. 

LESSON    II. 

In  the  sentence  "  Iron  is  a  metal,"  is  any  quality  affirmed 
of  "  iron  ? "  Ans. — There  is  not.  That  is  right.  The  predi- 
cate "  metal "  denotes  kind  or  class,  not  quality.  It  is  a  predi- 
cate, however,  because   it  is   affirmed   of  the   subject  "iron." 


138  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

In  the  sentence  "Horses  are  animals,"  what  is  the  subject? 
Ans. — "Horses."  Why?  Ans. — Because  it  is  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed.  What  is  the  predicate?  Ans. — "Ani- 
mals." Why?  Ans. — Because  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of 
the  subject.     What  is  the  copula?    Ans. — The  word  "are." 

Affirm  class  of  the  following  subjects : 

Horses,  oxen,  coal,  wood,  hay,  oats,  wheat,  ax,  hoe,  locomo- 
tive, dogs,  sheep,  copper,  gold,  apples,  trees,  wagons,  houses. 

Model. — Wheat  is  a  vegetable. 
Affirm  qualities  of  the  same  subjects. 

LESSON    III. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Horses  run."  You 
see  that  the  predicate  "  run  "  is  affirmed  directly  of  the  subject 
without  the  use  of  the  copula.  The  copula  and  predicate  are 
united  in  one  word ;  for  "  Horses  run "  means  the  same  as 
"  Horses  are  running." 

What  is  the  subject  in  this  sentence:  "Boys  learn"?  Ans. — 
"Boys."  What  is  the  predicate?  Ans.  —  "Learn."  Why? 
Ans. — It  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject.  Words 
which  affirm  any  thing  of  subjects  are  called  Verbs.  What 
are  the  words  "run"  and  "learn?"  Ans. — Verbs.  Why? 
Ans. — Because  they  affirm  something  of  their  subjects. 

Write  sentences,  using  the  following  verbs  as  predicates : 

Walk,  sing,  whistle,  swim,  wrestle,  play,  write,  study,  plow, 
reap,  drive,  neigh,  cackle,  whine,  snarl,  gobble,  quarrel,  fight. 

Model. — Cattle  walk 

LESSON    IV. 

Write  on  your  slates,  and  then  repeat  in  concert: 

"An  Element  is  one  of  the  distinct  parts  of  a  sentence." 

The  Subject  and  Predicate  are  called  Principal  Elements,  be- 
cause no  sentence  can  be  formed  without  them. 

The  Copula  is  not  an  element :  it  is  used  merely  to  join  a 
predicate  to  a  subject,  and  to  make  an  assertion. 


SYNTAX— OEAL  LESSONS.  139 

Separating  a  sentence  into  its  elements  is  called  Analysis. 
We  will  now  analyze  some  sentences  according  to  the  fol- 
lowing 

MODELS. 

I.   "Apples  are  ripe." 

Apples  .  .  is  the  subject;  it  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed: 
ripe  is  the  predicate;  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the 
subject;  are  is  the  copula. 

II.  "  Birds  fly." 
Birds  ...  is  the  subject;  (why?):  fly  is  the  predicate  (why?). 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Ink  is  black.  2.  Gold  is  yellow.  3.  Lead  is  a  metal. 
4.  Birds  sing.  5.  Vessels  sail.  6.  Trees  are  plants.  7.  Fishes 
swim.  8.  Elihu  was  tardy.  9.  Mary  was  studious.  10.  Enoch 
may  be  angry.     11.  Snow  falls.     12.  Houses  stand. 


LESSON    V. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates:  "Horses  eat."  While 
you  were  writing  did  you  not  think  some  word  should  be 
added,  representing  what  horses  eat?  Ans. — We  did.  What 
word  shall  we  add?  Ans. — Oats.  Write  "oats"  after  the  verb. 
This  word  completes  the  meaning  of  the  verb,  and  is  called  an 
Objective  Element,  or  Object.  In  the  sentence  "Pupils  study 
arithmetic,"  what  word  completes  the  meaning  of  the  predi- 
cate or  verb?  Ans. — "Arithmetic."  What  element  is  it? 
Ans. — An  objective  element.  Why?  Ans.—  Because  it  com 
pletes  the  meaning  of  the  verb. 

Write  ten  sentences,  each  containing  an  objective  element. 
Model. — Indians  hunt  buffaloes. 

Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written,  using  this  model: 
"Children  love  play.'' 

Children  is  the  subject;    (why?):    love,  the  predicate;  (why?):    the 
predicate  is  modified  by  play,  an  objective  element. 


140  ENGLISH  GKAMMAE. 

Analyze  also  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Heat  melts  lead.  2.  Men  love  money  3.  I  study  botany. 
4.  Haste  makes  waste.  5.  Cats  catch  mice.  6.  Mr.  Jones  sells 
calicoes.     7.  Clouds  bring  rain. 

LESSON    VI. 

"Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates r  "Apples  are  ripe." 
What  is  the  subject  of  the  sentence?  Ans. — "Apples."  Why? 
Ans. — It  is  that  of  which  something  is  affirmed.  What  is  the 
word  "apples"?  Ans.—  It  is  a  noun.  Why?  Ans. — It  is  a 
name.  What  is  the  predicate?  Ans. — "Ripe."  Why?  Ans. — 
It  is  that  which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject.  Now  write  these 
words:  "Ripe  apples."  Is  this  a  sentence?  Ans. — It  is  not. 
Why?  Ans. — There  is  nothing  affirmed.  That  is  correct. 
The  word  "ripe"  is  here  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 
"apples/'  as  an  attribute,  not  as  &  predicate:  that  is,  it  is  assumed, 
or  taken  for  granted,  that  it  belongs  to  "apples."  All  words 
which  modify  the  meaning  of  nouns  in  this  manner,  are  called 
Adjective  Elements. 

Write  this  sentence :  "  Ripe  apples  are  cheap."  What  is 
"ripe?"  Ans. — An  adjective  element.  Why?  Ans. — It  modi- 
fies the  meaning  of  a  noun.  "Samuel's  hat  is  torn."  What 
element  is  "Samuel's"?  Ans. — An  adjective  element.  Why? 
Ans. — It  modifies  the  meaning  of  the  noun  "  hat."  "  Mr. 
Smith,  the  mason,  is  sick."  What  is  "mason"?  Ans. — An 
adjective  element.  Why?  Ans. — It  modifies  the  meaning  of 
"Mr.  Smith,"  a  noun.  What  are  the  words  "Samuel's"  and 
"mason"?  Ans. — They  are  nouns.  Nouns,  then,  are  adjective 
elements  when  they  modify  nouns. 

Write  five  sentences,  limiting  the  subjects  by  adjective  elements  denoting 
quality. 

Models. — Gross  dogs  bite.     Cold  winter  comes. 

Write  five  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  adjective  elements  de- 
noting number. 

Models. — Two  boys  fought.     Three  men  left. 


SYNTAX— OEAL  LESSONS.  141 

Write  five  sentences,   limiting   their  subjects  by  words   which  merely 
point  them  out. 

Models.— That  boy  is  studious.     This  boy  is  lazy. 

Write  five  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  nouns. 
Models. — Eli's  uncle  is  rich.     Mr.  Tod  the  lawyer  is  young. 

Write  five  sentences,  limiting  both  subjects   and  objects  by  adjective 
elements. 

Model. — Emma's  mother  bought  a  new  bonnet. 
Analyze,  the  following  sentences,  using  these  models: 

I.  "Milton  the  poet  was  blind." 

MUton is  the  subject;    blind   is  the  predicate;   "Milton" 

is  modified  by  poet,  an  adjective  element,  and 
"poet"  by  the,  an  adjective  element:  was  is  the 
copula. 

II.  "Evil  communications  corrupt  good  manners." 

Communications  is  the  subject;  corrupt,  the  predicate;  "commu- 
nications "  is  modified  by  evil,  an  adjective  ele- 
ment; "corrupt,"  by  manners,  an  objective  ele- 
ment ;  and  "  manners,"  by  good,  an  adjective 
element. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Sarah's  book  is  lost.  2.  Mrs.  Elkins  the  milliner  found 
Sarah's  book.  3.  Old  people  love  quiet.  4.  Young  children 
love  play.  5.  I  like  ripe  cherries.  6.  You  have  found  my 
pencil. 

LESSON    VII. 

Write  this  sentence  on  your  slates :  "  Birds  sing  sweetly." 
Does  "sweetly"  denote  what  the  birds  sing?  Ans.— It  does 
not;  it  tells  how  they  sing.  That  is  right.  "Sweetly"  does 
not  complete  the  meaning  of  "sing,"  like  an  objective  ele- 
ment; but  it  modifies  its  meaning  in  another  way.  All  words 
used  in  such  a  manner  are  called  Adverbial  Elements.  Words 
which   modify  adjectives   are  called   adverbial   elements  also. 


142  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

In  this  sentence,  "  The  storm  rages  violently,"  what  is  the 
subject  ?  Ans. — "  Storm."  What  is  the  predicate  ?  Ans. — 
"Rages."  What  is  "violently"?  Ans. — An  adverbial  element. 
Why?  Ans. — It  modifies  a  verb,  but  does  not  complete  its 
meaning. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Very  large  vessels  were  seen,"  what  is 
modified  by  "very?"  Ans.—"  Large."  What  is  "large?" 
Ans. — An  adjective.  What  element,  then,  is  "  very  ?  "  Ans. — 
An  adverbial  element.  Why?  Ans. — It  modifies  an  adjective. 
Adverbial  elements  also  modify  other  adverbial  elements. 

Write  ten  sentences,  modifying  the  verbs  by  adverbial  elements. 
Model. — The  wind  blows  furiously. 

Write  ten  sentences,  containing  adjective  elements  modified  by  adverbial 
elements. 
Model. — James  recited  a  very  long  lesson. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences,  using  these  models : 

I.  "  The  wind  blows  violently." 

Wind  .  is  the  subject;  blows,  the  predicate;  "wind"  is  modified  by 
the,  an  adjective  element;  "blows"  is  modified  by  violently, 
an  adverbial  element. 

II.  "  Emma  has  a  very  severe  headache." 

Emma  is  the  subject;  has,  the  predicate;  "has"  is  modified  by 
headache,  an  objective  element ;  "  headache "  by  a  and 
severe,  adjective  elements;  and  "severe"  by  very,  an  ad- 
verbial element. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  A  sluggard  sleeps  soundly.  2.  The  horses  were  much 
fatigued.  3.  Very  loud  reports  were  heard.  4.  That  boy 
spends  his  money  foolishly.  5.  You  may  go  now.  6.  He  then 
left  the  country. 

7.  The  river  rose  rapidly.  8.  The  troops  marched  forward. 
9.  Their  parents  live  there.  10.  How  far  did  the  horses  run? 
11.  He  acted  wisely.  12.  Mr.  Mason  is  a  truly  good  man. 
13.  He  will  be  heard  from  presently.  14.  The  men  were  very 
much  fatigued.     15.  The  doctor  will  be  here  immediately. 


SYNTAX— DEFINITIONS.  143 

154.  DEFINITIONS. 

1.  Syntax  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

2.  A  Sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making 
complete   sense. 

Ex.— Birds  fly.  Man  is  mortal.  "  The  great  throat  of  the  chinv 
ney  laughed."  "When  the  farmer  came  down  in  the"  morning,  he 
declared  that  his  watch  had  gained  halt  an  hour  in  the  night." 

3.  A  Proposition  is  a  thought  expressed  in  words. 

Ex.— The  weather  is  pleasant.     The  boy  seems  frightened. 

Rem. — The  term  sentence  is  applied  to  any  assemblage  of 
words  so  arranged  as  to  make  complete  sense;  proposition,  to 
the  thought  which  those  words  express. 

4.  Propositions   are   either  Principal  or   Subordinate. 

5.  A  Principal  Proposition  is  one  which  makes  com- 
plete sense  when  standing  alone. 

6.  A  Subordinate  Proposition  is  one  which  does  not 
make  complete  sense  when  standing  alone,  but  which 
must  be  connected  with  another  proposition. 

Ex. — "'The  man  that  does  no  good, does  harm."  Here  "the  man 
does  harm"  is  the  principal  proposition,  for  it  makes  complete  sense 
when  standing  alone:  "that  does  no  good"  is  a  subordinate  propo- 
sition, for  it  does  not  make  complete  sense  when  standing  alone. 

7.  A  Phrase  is  an  assemblage  of  words  forming  a 
single  expression,  but  not  making  complete  sense. 

Ex.— Till  lately;  rn  haste;  since  then;  year  by  year;  little  by 
little;  to  see;   to  have  seen;   to  be  seen. 

8.  A  Discourse  is  a  series  of  sentences  on  the  same 
subject,  arranged  in  logical  order. 

9.  A  Paragraph  is  a  series  of  sentences  on  the  same 
branch  of  a  subject. 


144  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

10.  An  Element  is  one  of  the  component  parts  of  9 
sentence. 

11.  Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  its 
elements. 

12.  Synthesis   is  the   construction  of  sentences  from 
words. 

SENTENCES. 


155.  CLASSIFICATION  WITH  RESPECT  TO  USE. 

1.  With  respect  to  use,  sentences  are  divided  into  four 
classes :  Declarative,  Interrogative,  Imperative,  and  Ex- 
clamatory. 

2.  A  Declarative  Sentence  is  one  used  to  affirm  or 
deny  something. 

Ex. — Fishes  swim.    Fishes  do  not  walk. 

Rem. — Direct  Discourse  is  telling  what  somebody  thinks  or 
says,  by  using  his  own  words;  as,  "Our  teacher  said,  'Be  frank, 
honest,  and  truthful!  " 

Indirect  Discourse  is  giving  the  substance  of  what  somebody 
thinks  or  says,  but  not  using  his  own  words;  as,  "Our  teacher 
said,  that  we  should  be  frank,  honest,  and  truthful." 

3.  An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  used  to  ask  a 
question. 

Ex. — Are  you  angry?    Where  does  that  man  live? 

Rem. — A  Direct  Question  is  one  which  can  be  answered  by 
yes  or  no;  as,  "Has  the  money  been  paid?" 

An  Indirect  Question  is  one  which  can  not  be  answered  by 
yes  or  no;  as,  "Who  paid  the  money?" 

4.  An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  used  to  express  a 
command  or  an  entreaty. 

Ex. — Bring  me  that  book.    Do  not  strike  me. 


\ 


SYNTAX— SENTENCES.  145 

5.  An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  one  used  in  exclama- 
tions, or  in  the  expression  of  strong  emotion. 
Ex. — Oh,  how  glad  I  am  to  see  you ! 

156.  EXERCISES. 

Tell  to  which  class  each  of  the  following  sentences  belongs  : 
Model. — "The  dews  bring  their  jewels." 
This  is  a  declarative  sentence;  it  is  used  to  affirm  something. 

1.  The.  days  are  calm.  2.  How  many  quarts  are  there  in  a 
gallon?  ^"3.  The  winds  bring  perfumes.  4.  Study  diligently. 
5.  He  waved  his  arm.  6.  And  the  fellow  calls  himself  a 
painter!     7.  He  deserved  punishment  rather  than  pity. 

8.  0,   how  careless   you  are!     9.  What  was   the  Eubicon? 

•j  10.  How  brightly  the  sun  shines!     11.  Alas  for  the  man  who 

has  not  learned  to  work!     12.  Bring   forth   the  prisoner  now. 

13.  I  had  a  dream  which  was  not  all  a  dream. — Byron.     14.  A 

plague  of  all  cowards,  still  say  I. — Shakespeare. 

15.  Attend  to  the  duties  I  have  assigned  you.  16.  Many 
fell  by  thy  arm:  they  were  consumed  in  the  flame  of  thy 
wrath.  17.  When  shall  it  be  morn  in  the  grave,  to  bid  the 
slumberer  awake?  18.  The  Commons,  faithful  to  their  system, 
remained  in  a  wise  and  masterly  inactivity. — Mackintosh. 


157.  CLASSIFICATION  "WITH  RESPECT  TO  FORM. 

1.  With  respect  to  form,  sentences  are  divided  into 
three  classes:  Simple,  Complex,  and  Compound, 

2.  A  Simple  Sentence  consists  of  a  single  proposition. 

Ex. — Flowers  bloom.    Who  is  he?    Tread  lightly.    How  glad  I 
am! 

3.  A  Complex  Sentence  is  one  some  element  of  which 
contains  a  subject  and  a  predicate. 


146  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — Flowers  bloom  when  spring  returns  He  who  is  diligent  shall 
be  rewarded.  I  hear  that  you  have  sold  your  farm,  and  that  you  are 
going  to  California. 

Rem. — The  propositions  in  complex  sentences  are  called 
Clauses.  They  are  named  and  numbered  according  to  the 
order  of  their   subordination. 

Ex. — "  I  believe  that  he  is  honest."  In  this  sentence,  "  I  believe  " 
is  the  principal  clause,  and  "  that  he  is  honest "  is  the  subordinate. 

4.  A  Compound  Sentence  consists  of  two  or  more 
simple  or  complex  sentences,  joined  by  coordinate  con- 
junctions. 

Ex. — Spring  comes,  and  the  flowers'  bloom.  "  I  go,  but  I  re- 
turn." "Though  Truth  is  fearless  and  absolute,  yet  she  is  meek 
and  modest." 

Rem.  I. — The  simple  or  complex  sentences,  of  which  com- 
pound sentences  are  composed,  are  called  Members.  They  are 
numbered  according  to  their  place  in  the  sentence. 

Ex. — "  Every  man  desires  to  live  long ;  but  no  man  would  be 
old."  In  this  sentence,  "every  man  desires  to  live  long"  is  the  first 
member,  and  "  no  man  would  be  old  "  is  the  second. 

Rem.  2. — The  clauses  of  complex  sentences  are  connected 
by  relative  pronouns,  conjunctions,  and  conjunctive  adverbs.  The 
members  of  compound  sentences  are  connected  by  conjunc- 
tions. 

Rem.  3. — The  connectives  are  sometimes  omitted;  as,  "I 
thought  [that]  he  was  absent;"  "Talent  is  power,  [but]  tact 
is  skill." 

Rem.  4. — A  sentence  whose  members  are  complex,  is  a  com- 
pound-complex sentence. 


158.  MODELS  FOR  CLASSIFICATION. 

I.  "The  nights  are  tranquil." 

This  is  a  sentence;  it  is  an  assemblage  of  words  making  com- 
plete sense:  declarative;  it  is  used  to  affirm  something:  simple; 
it  consists  of  a  single  proposition. 


SYNTAX— SENTENCES.  147 

II.  "Shall  I  return  the  book  which  you  lent  me?" 

This  is  a  sentence;  interrogative ;  it  is  used  to  ask  a  question: 
complex;  it  is  composed  of  a  principal  and  a  subordinate  prop- 
osition: "Shall  I  return  the  book"  is  the  principal  proposition, 
and  "which  you  lent  me,"  the  subordinate,  limiting  "book." 
"Which"  is  the  connective. 

III.  "She  counseled  him,  that  when  he  arose  in  the  morning, 

he  should  beat  them  without  mercy." — Bunyan. 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  complex;  "She  counseled  him" 
is  the  principal  proposition ;  "  that  he  should  beat  them  with- 
out mercy"  the  first  subordinate,  modifying  "counseled";  and 
"when  he  arose  in  the  morning"  the  second  subordinate,  modi- 
fying "beat."     "That"  and  "when"  are  connectives. 

IV.  "Pope  had  perhaps  the  judgment  of  Dryden;  but  Dryden 

certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope." — Johnson. 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  compound;  it  is  composed  of 
two  propositions,  joined  by  a  coordinate  connective:  "Pope  had 
perhaps  the  judgment  of  Dryden"  is  the  first  member,  and  "Dry- 
den certainly  wanted  the  diligence  of  Pope"  is  the  second.  "But" 
is  the  connective. 

159.   EXERCISES. 

1.  Thy  feet  are  fetterless.  2.  Level  spread  the  lake  before 
him.  3.  He  waved  his  broad  felt  hat  for  silence.  4.  A  soldier 
of  the  Legion  lay  dying  in  Algiers.  5.  It  sank  from  sight 
before  it  set. —  Whitticr.  6.  Ye  softening  dews,  ye  tender  show- 
ers, descend!  7.  None  will  flatter  the  poor.  8.  Ye  are  the 
things  that  tower.     9.  The  house  was  wrapped  in  flames. 

10.  Hope  and  fear  are  the  bane  of  human  life.  11.  The 
village  all  declared  how  much  he  knew. — Goldsmith.  12.  He 
that  refuseth  instruction  despiseth  his  own  soul.  13.  Is  it  for 
thee  the  lark  ascends  and  sings?  14.  How  dreadful  is  this 
place,  for  God  is  here!  15.  He  dares  not  touch  a  hair  of 
Catiline.  16.  What  can  compensate  for  the  loss  of  character? 
17.  Lead  us  not  into  temptation,  but  deliver  us  from  evil. 

18.  Time  slept  on  flowers,  and  lent  his  glass  to  Hope. 
19.  All  were  sealed  with  the  seal  which  is  never  to  be  broken 


148  ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 

till  the  great  day!  20.  0  God,  we  are  but  leaves  on  thy 
stream,  clouds  in  thy  sky.  21.  Talk  to  the  point,  and  stop 
when  you  have  reached  it. 

22.  It  was  now  the  Sabbath-day,  and  a  small  congregation 
of  about  a  hundred  souls,  had  met  for  divine  service,  in  a 
place  more  magnificent  than  any  temple  that  human  hands 
had  ever  built  to  Deity. —  Wilson. 

23.  I  know  thou  art  gone  where  the  weary  are  blest, 

And  the  mourner  looks  up  and  is  glad. 

24.  What  matter  how  the  night  behaved? 

What  matter  how  the  north  wind  raved? — Whittier. 

25.  Bird  of  the  broad  and  sweeping  wing, 

Thy  home  is  high  in  heaven, 
Where  the  wide  storms  their  banners  fling, 
And  the  tempest  clouds  are  driven. — Percival. 


ELEMENTS 


160.   PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS. 

1.  The  Principal  Elements  of  a  proposition  are  those 
which  are  necessary  to  its  construction.  They  are  the 
Subject  and  the  Predicate. 

2.  The    Subject    of  a   proposition    is    that  of  which 

something   is   affirmed. 

Ex.— "Time  is  precious."  "Time"  is  the  subject;  it  is  that  of 
which  "precious"  is  affirmed. 

3.  The  Predicate  of  a  proposition  is  that  which  is 
affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Ex. — "Time  is  precious."  "Precious"  is  the  predicate;  it  is  that 
which  is  affirmed  of  the  subject. 

Rem. — In  these  definitions,  the  term  "affirm"  is  meant  to 
include  say,  ask  /or,  command,  entreat,  or  exclaim. 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  149 

4.  The  subject  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a  clause. 

Ex. —  Winter  is  coming,  if  is  a  letter.  To  steal  is  base.  "Pay 
as  you  go"  is  a  good  rule.     "Why  will  he  persist?"  is  often  asked. 

Rem. — The  subject  of  a  proposition  may  be  known  by  its 
answering  the  question  formed  by  using  Who?  or  What?  with 
the  predicate. 

Ex. — "John  is  careless."  Who  is  careless?  Ans. — "John."  "John," 
therefore,  is  the  subject.  "To  be  sick  is  disagreeable."  What  is  dis- 
agreeable? Ans. — "To  be  sick."  "To  be  sick,"  therefore,  is  the 
subject. 

5.  The  Copula  is  some  form  of  the  verb  to  be  (is, 
was,  might  be,  etc.),  or  of  some  other  copulative  verb. 
Its  office  is  to  affirm  the  predicate  of  the  subject. 

Ex. — "Silence  is  impressive."  "Is"  is  the  copula,  and  "impress- 
ive" the  predicate.  "Gold  is  a  metal."  "Is"  is  the  copula,  and 
"  metal "  the  predicate.  "  He  may  have  been  injudicious."  "  May 
have  been  "  is  the  copula,  and  "  injudicious  "  the  predicate.  "  The 
fields  look  green."     "Look"  is  the  copula,  and  "green"  the  predicate. 

6.  In  affirming  action,  being,  or  state,  the  copula  and 
predicate  are  generally  united  in  one  word,  or  one  form, 
called  a  verb. 

Ex. — Pupils  study.  I  am.  The  house  stands.  Eain  is  falling. 
Letters  are  written. 

7.  The  copula  is  sometimes  followed  by  the  infinitive 
of  the  verb  to  be  or  of  some  other  copulative  verb ;  as, 
"  The  boy  seems  to  be  sick ; "  "  The  detective  was  to 
appear  inattentive. "  The  infinitive  depends  upon  the 
copula,  and  is  an  adverbial  element;  the  entire  expres- 
sion is  called  a  strengthened  copula. 

8.  The  Predicate  may  be  a  word,  a  phrase,  or  a 
clause. 

Ex. — Horses  gallop.  Wheat  is  a  vegetable.  The  sun  was  shining. 
"To  obey  is  to  enjoy."  He  seems  honest.  My  desire  is,  that  you 
attend  school. 


150  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Rem. — The  predicate  is  sometimes  erroneously  called  the 
attribute  of  a  proposition,  and  the  copula  and  predicate,  taken 
together,  the  predicate. 


161.  MODELS  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

I.   "Birds  sing." 

This  is  a  sentence;   declarative;  simple. 

Birds  is  the  subject;  it  is  that  of  which  something  is 
affirmed;  sing  is  the  predicate;  it  is  that  which  is  affirmed 
of  the  subject. 

II.  "Scholars  should  be  studious." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Scholars  is  the  subject;  studious  is  the  predicate;  should  be 
is  the  copula. 

111.  "  Franklin  was  a  philosopher." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Franklin  is  the  subject;  philosopher  is  the  predicate;  was  is 
the  copula. 

IV.  "He  was  considered  responsible." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

He  is  the  subject;  responsible  is  the  predicate;  was  consid- 
ered is  the  copula. 

V.  "Be  truthful." 

This  is  a  sentence;  imperative;  simple. 

Thou  or  you,  understood,  is  the  subject;  truthful  is  the  predi- 
cate; be  is  the  copula. 


162.  EXERCISES   IN  ANALYSIS. 

1.  Children  play.     2.  Virtue  ennobles.     3.  Spring  has  come. 
4.  Winter   has   departed,      5.  You   may  go.      6.   Mary  might 


SYNTAX—  ELEM  ENTS.  151 

have  sung.  7.  Horses  can  run.  8.  Flowers  are  blooming. 
9.  Money  may  be  loaned.  10.  Books  will  be  bought.  11.  Stars 
were  shining.     12.  John  should  have  been  studying. 

13.  Glass  is  brittle.  14.  Water  is  transparent.  15.  Savages 
may  be  merciful.  16.  Men  should  be  just.  17.  Samuel  should 
have  been  obedient.  18.  Geography  is  interesting.  19.  Job 
was  patient.  20.  I  will  be  industrious.  21.  They  have  been 
successful. 

22.  Iron  is  a  metal.  23.  Flies  are  insects.  24.  Napoleon 
was  a  general.  25.  Ostriches  are  birds.  26.  "Men  would  be 
angels;  angels  would  be  gods."  27.  They  may  have  been  tru- 
ants. 28.  Howard  was  a  philanthropist.  29.  He  might  have 
been  a  lawyer.     30.  George  had  been  a  captain. 

31.  John  looks  cold.  32.  I  feel  aguish.  33.  Ants  appear  in- 
dustrious. 34.  Washington  was  elected  president.  35.  Avarice 
has  become  his  master.  36.  He  seems  dejected.  37.  He  be- 
came wealthy.     38.  It  was  deemed  inexpedient. 


163.   ARRANGEMENT  OP   ELEMENTS. 

1.  Arrangement    is   the   correct  placing  of  elements. 

2.  Elements    are    arranged    in   Natural   or   Inverted 
order. 

3.  The  Natural  order  of  arrangement  is  that  which 
is  most  customary. 

4.  The    Inverted    order   of  arrangement   is    any    de- 
parture  from   the   natural   order. 

Rem. — In  inverted  order,  the  elements  are  said  to  be  trans- 
posed. 

5.  The  Natural  order  of  arrangement  is: 
In  Declarative  Sentences: 

1.  Subject    .  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "Winds  blow." 

2.  Subject    .  .  .   Copula    .  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "Chalk  is  white." 

3.  Subject    .  .  .  Auxiliary  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "You  may  go." 


152  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

In  Interrogative  Sentences: 

1.  Copula    .  .  .  Subject    .  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "Is  he  wise?" 

2.  Auxiliary  .  .  Subject    .  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "May  I  go?" 

3.  Predicate   .  .  Subject;  as,  "Say  you  so?" 

4.  Subject    .  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "Who  remained?" 

In  Imperative  Sentences: 

1.  Predicate    .  .  Subject;  as,  "Go  thou." 

2.  Copula    .  .  .  Subject    .  .  .  Predicate;  as,  "Be  ye  merciful." 

In  Exclamatory  Sentences,  the  arrangement  is  the  same  as 
in  declarative,  interrogative,  and  imperative  sentences. 

6.  The  Inverted  order  is  used  when  the  predicate  is 
made  emphatic. 

Rem. — Inversion  occurs  in  declarative  and  exclamatory  sen- 
tences. The  usual  order  of  arrangement  is:  Predicate  .  .  Cop- 
ula .  .  Subject;  as,  "Great  was  our  wonder;"  "Known  unto 
God  are  all  his  works." 

164.   EXERCISES  IN  SYNTHESIS. 

Affirm  actions  of  the  following  subjects  : 

Winds,  waters,  stars,  fire,  light,  acorns,  sheep,  rabbits,  fishes, 
men,  women,  boys,  girls,  children,  thunder,  lightning,  storms, 
nobles,  kings,  merchants. 

Models. — Winds  blow.     Storms  rage. 

Affirm  quality  of  the  following  subjects: 

Apples,  cherries,  peaches,  fruit,  books,  desks,  winter,  spring, 
summer,  autumn,  sugar,  quinine,  vinegar,  grammar,  writing, 
evenings,  darkness,  chemistry,  geography. 

Models. — Apples  are  ripe.     Quinine  is  bitter. 

Ascertain  all  the  distinguishing  properties  of  five  substances.     Affirm 
them  of  the  substances  to  which  they  belong. 

Models.— Chalk  is  white;  chalk  is  opaque;  chalk  is  brittle; 
chalk  is  incombustible,  etc. 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  153 

Affirm  class  or  kind  of  the  following  subjects : 

Oranges,  horses,  hens,  flies,  Henry,  Washington,  ships,  gold, 
silver,  sharks,  water,  air,  table. 

Models. — Oranges  are  fruit.     Henry  is  a  clerk. 

165.   SUBORDINATE  ELEMENTS. 

1.  A  Modifier  is  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  joined  to  a 
term  to  limit  or  restrict  its  meaning  or  application. 

Ex. — A  wealthy  man.    Chairs  to  mend.    A  man  who  is  wealthy. 

2.  Subordinate  Elements  are  those  which  modify  other 
elements.  They  are  distinguished  as  Objective^  Adjec- 
tive, and  Adverbial. 


166.    OBJECTIVE    ELEMENT. 

An  Objective  Element  is  a  word  or  group  of  words 
which  completes  the  meaning  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  or  of  its  participles.  It  is  usually  called 
the  object. 

Ex. — Heat  melts  metals.  Men  love  money.  I  wish  to  be  quiet. 
Alice  knew  that  we  were  not  at  home.     Him  they  sought. 

Rem.  I.— The  objective  element  answers  the  question  formed 
by  using  Whom?  or  What?  with  the  predicate,  or  with  the  sub- 
ject and  predicate. 

Ex. — "John  writes  letters."  Writes  what?  Ans. — "  Letters  "  = 
the  object.  "  Brutus  killed  Csesar."  Brutus  killed  whom?  Ans. — 
"  Caesar  "  =  the  object. 

Rem.  2. — By  "completing  the  meaning  of  a  verb"  is  meant 
restricting  its  application,  by  stating  that  on  which  its  action 
terminates.  In  the  sentence  "John  writes,"  the  predicate 
"writes"  is  taken  in  its  most  general  sense:  what  John  writes 
is  not  mentioned.  In  the  sentence  "  John  writes  letters,"  the 
application  of  the  predicate  is  restricted  to  the  single  act  of 
writing  letters.  "Letters"  being  the  object  on  which  the  act 
of  writing  terminates,  it  is  called  the  objective  element. 


154        v  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

Rem.  3. — Some  verbs  are  followed  by  two  objects:  one  de- 
noting a  person  or  thing;  the  other,  the  rank,  office,  occupa- 
tion, or  character,  of  the  person,  or  the  species  of  the  thing. 

Ex. — They  elected  Charles  captain.  He  called  him  a  scoundrel.  He 
makes  the  sea  his  home.     They  declared  self-government  a  delusion. 

Rem.  4. — Another  class  of  verbs  is  followed  by  two  objects: 
one  denoting  a  person  or  thing;  the  other,  that  to  or  from 
which  the  act  tends.  The  former  is  called  the  direct,  the 
latter  the  indirect  object.     (See,  also,  Sec.  32,  Rem.) 

Ex. — He  taught  me  arithmetic.  He  sold  me  a  horse.  I  gave  him 
money.    They  sent  John  a  telegram. 


167.   MODELS   FOR  ANALYSIS. 

VI.  "Columbus  discovered  America." 
This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Columbus  is  the  subject;  discovered  is  the  predicate.  The 
predicate  is  modified  by  America,  an  objective  element. 

VII.  "Whom  did  you  see?" 
This  is  a  sentence;  interrogative;  simple. 

You  is  the  subject;  did  see  is  the  predicate.  The  predicate 
is  modified  by  whom,  an  objective  element. 

VIII.  "Bring  me  flowers." 
This  is  a  sentence;  imperative;  simple. 

Thou  or  you,  understood,  is  the  subject;  bring  is  the  predi- 
cate. The  predicate  is  modified  by  me,  an  indirect,  and  by 
flowers,  a  direct  objective  element. 

IX.  "They  have  chosen  Mr.  Ames  speaker." 
This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

They  is  the  subject;  have  chosen  is  the  predicate.  The 
predicate  is  modified  by  Mr.  Ames,  a  direct  objective  ele- 
ment, and  by  speaker,  an  objective  element,  denoting  office. 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  1 55 


168.   EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS. 

1.  He  examined  the  books.  2.  Silas  studied  geology.  3. 
They  watched  the  storm.  4.  You  must  obey  the  laws.  5.  We 
earn  money.  6.  Merchants  sell  goods.  7.  Engineers  run  lo- 
comotives.    8.  Blacksmiths  shoe  horses. 

9.  Farmers  sow  grain.  10.  Give  me  music.  11.  They  chose 
him.  12.  We  have  chosen  him  director.  13.  Bring  him  a 
book.  14.  Whom  did  you  call  ?  15.  I  sold  him  a  horse. 
16.  He  taught  me  algebra.  17.  Henry  gave  Eli  his  velocipede. 
18.  The  teacher  has  appointed  John  monitor.  19.  God  called 
the  light  day.     20.  They  made  him  their  leader. 


169.   EXERCISES   IN  SYNTHESIS. 

Sentences  containing  objective  elements  are  arranged 
as  follows: 

Declarative;  Subject  .   .  Predicate  .    .    Object;  as,  "I  found  it." 
Interrogative;  1.  Object  .    .    Predicate   .    .    Subject;  as,  "What  see 
you  ?  "     2.  Object    .    .    Auxiliary    .    .    Subject    .    .     Verb ;    as, 
"What  did  you  see?" 
Imperative;  Predicate   .    .    Object;  as,  "Practice  economy." 

Rem.  I. — In  inverted  order,  the  arrangement  of  declarative 
sentences  is: 

Object   .    .    Subject   .    .    Predicate;  as,  "Him  they  found." 

Write  sentences  containing  an  objective  element,  using  the  following 
words  as  subjects : 

Men,  boys,  heat,  lightning,  horses,  locomotives,  scythe,  knife, 
shears,  clerks,  merchants,  blacksmith,  tailor,  mason,  doctors, 
lion,  oxen,  eagles. 

Models. — Men  drive  horses.     Boys  fly  kites.     Merchants  sell 


Write  sentences  containing  two   objects,  using  the  above  or  any  other 
nouns. 
Models. — Charles  calls  doctors  physicians.     Frank  calls  a  sleigh 
a  cutter.     I  consider  William  a  genius. 


156  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

Write  sentences  containing  a  direct  and  an  indirect  object,  using  the 
following  verbs  : 

Ask,  buy,  bring,  do,  draw,  deny,  find,  get,  leave,  make,  pass, 
pour,  promise,  provide,  present,  sell,  send,  show,  refuse,  teach, 
tell,  throw,  write. 

Models. — Emma  asked  me  a  question.  He  bought  Charles  a 
pony. 

Change  each  of  the  verbs,  in  the  sentences  written  last,  into  the  passive 
voice,  making  either  object  the  subject. 
Models. — I  was  asked  a   question.      A  pony  was   bought   for 
Charles. 
Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written. 


170.    ADJECTIVE   ELEMENT, 

An  Adjective  Element  is  a  word  or  group  of  words 
which  modifies  a  noun  or  any  expression  used  as  a 
noun. 

Ex. — A  good  man.  Mr.  Myers,  the  banker.  Friend  Hiram.  "If 
you  can:  a  sensible  if."  "Done  gone,"  a  vulgarism,  is  frequently 
heard.  My  hook  is  on  Ellen's  desk.  A  letter,  written  in  haste.  She 
came,  laughing. 

Rem.  I. — An  adjective  element  is  a  definitive  or  descriptive 
term  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  noun  or  its  substitute. 
The  relation  which  a  predicate  attribute  sustains  to  the  subject 
is  affirmed:  the  relation  which  an  adjective  element  sustains  to 
the  term  it  modifies  is  assumed,  or  taken  for  granted. 

Ex. — "  That  man  is  wealthy."  The  predicate  "  wealthy  "  is  affirmed 
to  belong  to  "man."  "A  wealthy  man."  The  attribute  "wealthy" 
is  here  assumed  to  belong  to  "man,"  and  is  an  adjective  element. 

Rem.  2. — An  adjective  element,  containing  a  single  word, 
may  be: 

1.  An  Adjective ;  as,  "Ripe  apples." 

2.  A  Participle;  as,  "Hats  made  to  order." 

3.  A  Noun  in  Apposition;  as,  "Powers,  the  sculptor." 

4.  A  Possessive;  as,  "Eli's  pen."     "His  hat." 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  157 

171.  MODELS  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

X.  "Small  lakes  are  abundant." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Lakes  is  the  subject;  abundant  is  the  predicate;  are  is  the 
copula.    The  subject  is  modified  by  small,  an  adjective  element. 

XI.  "The  steamship  Hibernia  has  arrived." 

This  is  a  sentence :  declarative ;  simple. 

Steamship  is  the  subject;  has  arrived  is  the  predicate.  The 
subject  is  modified  by  the  "and  Hibernia,  both  adjective  ele- 
ments. 

XII.  "My  brother  broke  Stephen's  slate." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Brother  is  the  subject;  broke  is  the  predicate.  The  subject 
is  modified  by  my,  an  adjective  element.  The  predicate  is 
modified  by  slate,  an  objective  element,  and  "slate"  is  modi- 
fied by  Stephen's,  an  adjective  element. 

XIII.  "  The  old  man,  laughing,  said  ( Yes.' ' 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Man  is  the  subject;  said  is  the  predicate.  The  subject  is 
modified  by  the,  old,  and  laughing,  adjective  elements.  The 
predicate  is  modified  by  Yes,  an  objective  element. 


172.   EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS. 

1.  A  large  house  was  burned.  2.  I  wrote  a  long  letter. 
3.  This  land  is  government  property.  4.  Many  hands  make 
quick  work.  5.  A  wise  son  maketh  a  glad  father.  6.  Man's 
necessity  is  God's  opportunity.  7.  Mr.  Hodge,  the  farmer, 
hired  Mr.  Olds,  the  mason.     8.  Great  wits  jump. 

9.  He  is  a  vain,  conceited  blockhead.  10.  I  want  the  larg- 
est apple.  11.  Mary  has  chosen  the  better  part.  12.  Carlo's 
barking  wakened  the  family.  13.  I  saw  six  swans.  14.  This 
is  my  fortieth  birthday.     15.  Every  man  received  a  penny. 


158  ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 


173.   EXERCISES   IN   SYNTHESIS. 

Adjectives  and  possessives  are  usually  placed  before, 
and  participles  and  nouns  in  apposition,  after  the  nouns 
they  modify. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  subject  by  one  of  the  following  ad- 
jectives : 
Round,  square,  oval,  rough,  smooth,  transparent,  translucent, 
white,  green,  sour,  sweet,  old,  young,  new,  wise,  foolish,  lucky, 
unlucky,  careful,  careless. 

Models. — A  round  table  was  purchased.  A  square  box  was 
found. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  both  subject  and  object  by  an  adjective. 
Model. — A  stout  horse  draws  heavy  loads. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting   the  subject   or  object  by  the  possessive 
case  of  one  of  the  following  nouns : 
Elephant,    swan,    hawk,    sparrow,    summer,    winter,    father, 
mother,  uncle,   aunt,   John,   Samuel,   Celia,    Harriet,   Jackson, 
teacher,   doctor,   pupil,    merchant. 

Models. — An  elephant's  tusks  are  white.  A  swans  movements 
are  graceful. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  subject  or  object,  or  both,  by  a  noun 
in  apposition. 
Models. — Mr.    Sledge,    the    blacksmith,    is    sick.     Wilson,    the 
burglar,   robbed    Wilson,    the   banker. 

Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written. 


174.   ADVERBIAL  ELEMENT. 

An  Adverbial   Element  is  a  word  or  group  of  words 

used  to  modify  a  verb,  participle,  adjective,  or  adverb. 

Ex. — The  stranger  was  very  kind.    The  wind  blows  fiercely.    Come 
here.    Who  goes  there  t 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  159 

Rem.  I. — Adverbial  elements,  when  they  modify  the  mean- 
ing of  verbs,  usually  denote  some  circumstance  of  time,  place, 
cause,  degree,  or  manner. 

Ex. — He  calls  frequently.  There  is  no  night  there.  Why  are  you 
angry?    The  teacher  labored  faithfully. 

Rem.  2. — Adverbial  elements,  which  modify  the  manner  of 
the  assertion,  and  not  the  predicate  itself,  are  called,  modal 
adverbs. 

Ex. — He  has  not  come.  Perhaps  I  shall  go.  He  was  absent,  prok 
ably.    He  will  certainly  resign. 


175.    MODELS   FOR   ANALYSIS. 

XIV.  "He  is  strictly  honest." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

He  is  the  subject;  honest  is  the  predicate.  The  predicate  is 
modified  by  strictly,  an  adverbial  element. 

XV.  "The  sun  shines  brightly." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Sun  is  the  subject;  shines  is  the  predicate.  The  subject 
is  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element;  the  predicate  by 
brightly,  an  adverbial  element. 

XVI.  "He  is  not  handsome." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

He  is  the  subject;  handsome  is  the  predicate.  The  copula 
is  is  modified  by  not,  an  adverbial  element. 


176.   EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS. 

1.  The  birds  sing  sweetly.  2.  We  struck  the  vessel  just 
amidships.  3.  I  now  demand  your  votes.  4.  He  formerly 
lived  here.  5.  The  fire  went  out.  6.  He  seems  very  sad. 
7.  The  boy  wrote  the  letter  carelessly.  8.  They  have  been 
long  absent.     9.  I  shall  certainly  defend  you. 


160  ENGLISH  GKAMMAE. 


177.   EXERCISES   IN   SYNTHESIS. 

In  the  natural  order  of  arrangement,  the  adverbial 
element  is  placed  after  the  word  or  group  of  words  it 
limits. 

Ex.— He  denied  the  charge  vehemently. 

Rem. — In  inverted  order,  the  adverbial  element  is  placed 
between  the  subject  and  predicate,  or  at  the  head  of  the 
sentence. 

Ex. — He  vehemently  denied  the  charge.  Vehemently  did  he  deny 
the  charge. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  manner. 

Models. — She  writes  rapidly.     He  does  his  work  thoroughly. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  place. 

Models. — He  lives  there.     Where  do  you  live? 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  time. 

Models. — I  was  very  happy  then.     When  will  you  come? 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  predicates  by  an  adverbial  element 
of  cause  or  degree. 

Models. — Why  are  you  sad?  The  work  is  scarcely  com- 
menced. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  the  copulas  by  a  modal  adverb. 
Models. — He  is  certainly  insane.     James  is  not  a  truant. 

Write  seven  sentences,  containing  adjectives  modified  by  adverbial  ele- 
ments. 

Models. — That  tree  is  very  tall.  It  is  a  remarkably  fine  gem. 
Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written. 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  161 


178.   ATTENDANT  ELEMENTS. 

Attendant  or  Independent  Elements  are  words  or  ex^ 
pressions  not  used  as  principal  or  subordinate  elements 
of  the  sentences  in  which  they  are  found.     They  are: 

1.  Nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  nominative  absolute  ease;  as, 
"Children,  obey  your  parents;"  "Home,  her  glory  has  departed;" 
"He  having  arrived,  we  returned." 

2.  Interjections  and  nouns  used  in  broken  exclamations; 
as,  "Pshaw,  what  nonsense!"  "Wretched  man  that  I  am!" 

3.  Expletives,  and  words  used  to  introduce  sentences  in  a 
peculiar  way;  as,  "Now,  Barabbas  was  a  robber;"  "There  is  no 
report  of  any  disaster;"  "It  is  a  shameful  thing  to  tell  a  lie." 

4.  All  phrases  and  clauses  which  have  no  perceptible  con- 
nection with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Rem. — Attendant  elements  should  be  omitted  in  the  analy- 
sis of  the  sentences  containing  them.  They  have  no  gram- 
matical connection  with  other  words,  except  ir  certain  con- 
structions in  which  they  are  used  as  antecedents  of  pronouns. 
Sometimes  the  entire  group  of  words  of  which  they  form  a 
part  has  the  force  of  an  adverbial  element. 

Ex. — "Gad,  a  troop  shall  overcome  him."  The  attendant  element 
"Gad,"  is  the  antecedent  of  the  pronoun  "him."  "They  having 
left,  order  was  restored."  The  attendant  element  "  they,"  is  con- 
nected with  "having  left,"  and  the  combination  has  the  force  of 
the  adverbial  clause  "after  they  left." 


179.   WORDS,   PHRASES,   AND   CLAUSES. 

1.  Elements  are  divided  into   three  classes:    Words, 
Phrases,  and  Clauses. 

2.  An   element  may  consist  of  a  single  word, 

Ex. — "A  careless  boy  seldom  learns  his  lesson."     In  this  sentence, 
all  the  elements  are  single  words. 
H.G.— 1L 


162  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

3.  An  element  may  consist  of  a  phrase,  which  may 
be  an  infinitive  or  a  preposition  and  its  objects. 

Rem. — There  are  two  kinds  of  phrases:  Separable  and  Insep- 
arable. 

A  Separable  Phrase  is  one  whose  words  should  always  be 
parsed  separately;  as,  "He  rode  in  a  wagon."  The  three  words 
composing  the  phrase  "in  a  wagon,"  should  be  parsed  sepa- 
rately— "in"  as  a  preposition;  "a"  as  an  adjective;  "wagon" 
as  a  noun. 

An  Inseparable  Phrase  is  one  whose  words  need  not  be  sep- 
arated in  parsing;  as,  "I  will  come  by  and  by;"  "He  labors  in 
vain."  The  phrases  "by  and  by"  and  "in  vain"  may  be  parsed 
as  single  words.  All  the  forms  of  the  infinitive  mode  are  in- 
separable phrases. 

4.  An  element  may  consist  of  a  clause,  or  subordi- 
nate proposition. 

Ex. — "A  man  who  is  indolent  will  not  prosper ; "  "  I  learn  that  you 
are  out  of  employment."  The  subordinate  propositions  "  who  is  indo- 
lent" and  "you  are  out  of  employment"  are  clauses. 


180.    MODELS  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

SINGLE  WORDS. 

XVII.  "Tumultuous  murder  shook  the  midnight  air." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Murder  is  the  subject,  shook  is  the  predicate.  The  subject, 
"murder,"  is  modified  by  tumultuous,  an  adjective  element; 
the  predicate  "shook"  is  modified  by  air,  an  objective  ele- 
ment; "air"  is  modified  by  the  and  midnight,  adjective  ele- 
ments. 

181.    EXERCISES. 

1.  Thou  hast  uttered  cruel  words.  2.  Every  heart  knows 
its  sorrows.      3.    Gratitude  is  a  delightful  emotion.      4.    This 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  163 

generous  bounty  was  well  bestowed.  5.  The  best  men  often 
experience  disappointments.  6.  A  disposition  so  amiable  will 
secure  universal  regard.  7.  His  brother's  offense  will  not 
condemn  him. 


182.  PHRASES— ADJECTIVE   ELEMENTS. 

XVIII.  "A  life  of  prayer  is  a  life  of  heaven." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Life  is  the  subject;  life  is  the  predicate;  is  is  the  copula. 
The  subject,  "  life,"  is  modified  by  a,  an  adjective  element, 
and  by  the  phrase  of  prayer,  an  adjective  element.  The  pred- 
icate, "life,"  is  modified  by  a,  an  adjective  element,  and  by 
the  phrase  of  heaven,  an  adjective  element. 


183.  EXERCISES. 

1.  Black  crags  behind  thee  pierce  the  clear  blue  sky.  2.  Vi- 
cissitudes of  good  and  evil  fill  up  the  life  of  man.  3.  He  had 
a  remarkably  good  view  of  their  features.  4.  lie  shakes  the 
woods  on  the  mountain  side.  5.  The  fate  of  gods  may  well 
be  thine. — Byron.  6.  He  had  endured  three  months  of  nights. 
—  Ware.  7.  His  architecture  has  become  a  mere  framework 
for  the  setting  of  delicate  sculpture. — Buskin. 


184.  PHRASES— ADVERBIAL  ELEMENTS. 

XIX.  "Many  actions  apt  to  procure  fame,  are  not  conducive 
to  our  ultimate  happiness." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

Actions  is  the  subject;  conducive  is  the  predicate;  are  is  the 
copula.  The  subject,  "  actions,"  is  modified  by  many  and  apt, 
adjective  elements;  "apt"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  to  pro- 
cure, an  adverbial  element,  and  "to  procure,"  by  fame,  an 
objective  element.     The   copula,  "  are,"   is  modified   by  not,  a 


164  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

modal  adverbial  element;  and  the  predicate,  "conducive,"  by 
the  phrase  to  happiness,  an  adverbial  element,  and  "happi- 
ness," by  our  and  ultimate,  adjective  elements. 


XX.  "I  will  go  to-morrow." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

I  is  the  subject:  will  go  is  the  predicate.  The  predicate, 
"  will  go,"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  [  ]  to-morrow,  an  adverb- 
ial element — to-morrow  being  a  noun  in  the  objective  case 
without  a  governing  word.     (See  Sec.  219,  Rule  VIII.) 

Rem. — The  symbol  "  [  ] "  is  to  be  used  in  written  analysis 
only.  It  indicates  a  relation  usually  represented  or  expressed 
by  a  preposition.  In  oral  analysis,  the  pupil  should  pay  no 
attention  to  this  symbol,  but  use  the  form  of  words  given  in 
the  model. 

185.  EXERCISES. 

1.  I  bow  reverently  to  thy  decrees.  2.  Heaven  burns  with 
the  descending  sun.  3.  The  panther's  track  is  fresh  in  the 
snow.  4.  His  home  lay  low  in  the  valley.  5.  We  one  day 
descried  some  shapeless  object  floating  at  a  distance.  6.  The 
horses  ran  two  miles  without  stopping.  7.  We  sailed  south 
four  days.  8.  See  what  a  grace  is  seated  on  his  brow. — Shakes- 
peare. 9.  There  is  a  very  life  in  our  despair. — Byron.  10. 
Eternal  sunshine  settles  on  his  head. — Goldsmith.  11.  Heaven 
first  taught  letters  for  some  wretch's  aid. — Pope. 


186.  PHRASES-INFINITIVES. 

XXI.  "  To  love  is  to  obey." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

To  love  is  the  subject;  it  is  a  phrase:  to  obey  is  the  predi- 
cate; it  is  a  phrase:  is  is  the  copula. 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  165 

XXII.  "  He  wishes  to  go  to  the  house." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative ;  simple. 

He  is  the  subject;  wishes  is  the  predicate.  The  predicate, 
"  wishes,"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  to  go,  an  objective  ele- 
ment; "to  go"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  to  the  house,  an 
adverbial  element,  and  "house"  by  the,  an  adjective  element. 

XXIII.  "Clarence  seemed  to  be  their  leader." 

This  is  a  sentence;   declarative;  simple. 

Clarence  is  the  subject;  leader  is  the  predicate;  seemed  to 
be  is  the  strengthened  copula.  The  predicate,  "  leader,"  is 
modified  by  ''their,"  an  adjective  element.  "Seemed"  is  mod- 
ified by  the  phrase  "to  be,"  an  adverbial  element. 


187.  EXERCISES. 

1.  To  doubt  the  promise  of  a  friend  is  a  sin.  2.  He  has 
gone  to  his  office  to  write  a  letter.  3.  How  pleasant  it  is 
to  see  the  sun.  4.  Not  to  know  me  argues  yourselves  un- 
known.— Milton.  5.  'Tis  not  in  mortals  to  command  success. — 
Addison.  6.  Music  hath  charms  to  soothe  the  savage  breast.— 
Congreve.  7.  I  was  not  hardened  enough  to  venture  a  quar- 
rel with  him  then. — Oowley,  8.  A  thousand  years  scarce  serve 
to  found  a  state, — Byron. 


188.    CLAUSES. 

XXIV.  "  The  credulity  which  has  faith  in  goodness,  is  a  sign 
of  goodness." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  complex.  "Credulity  is  a  sign 
of  goodness "  is  the  pr  ncipal  clause,  and  "  which  has  faith  in 
goodness,"  the  subordjjaate. 

Credulity  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause;  sign  is  the 
predicate;  is  is  the  copula.  The  subject,  "credulity,"  is  modi- 
ied  by  the,  an  adjective  element,  and  by  the  clause  which 
ias  faith  in  goodness,  an  adjective  element;  "sign,"  the  predi- 


166  ENGLISH  GBAMMAR 

cate,  is  modified  by  a,  an  adjective  element,  and  by  the  phrase 
of  goodness,  an  adjective  element.  Which  is  the  subject  of 
the  subordinate  clause;  has  is  the  predicate.  The  predicate, 
"has,"  is  modified  by  faith,  an  objective  element,  and  by  the 
phrase  in  goodness,  an  adverbial  element. 

XXV.    "  I  thought,  when  I  saw  you  last,  that  I  should  never 
see  you  again." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  complex.  "I  thought"  is  the 
principal  proposition;  "when  I  saw  you  last"  and  "that  I 
should  never  see  you  again,"  are  subordinate  propositions. 

I  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  proposition;  thought  is  the 
predicate.  The  predicate,  "thought,"  is  modified  by  the  clause 
when  1  saw  you  last,  an  adverbial  element,  and  by  the  clause 
that  I  should  never  see  you  again,  an  objective  element.  I  is 
the  subject  of  the  objective  clause;  should  see  is  the  predicate; 
"  should  see "  is  modified  by  you,  an  objective  element,  and 
by  never  and  again,  adverbial  elements.  I  is  the  subject  of 
the  adverbial  clause;  saw  is  the  predicate;  "saw"  is  modi- 
fied by  you,  an  objective  element,  and  by  when  and  last,  ad- 
verbial elements.  When  and  that  are  connectives,  joining  the 
clauses  they  introduce  to  "thought." 


189.    EXERCISES. 

1.  Soon  rested  those  who  fought.  2.  All  said  that  Love 
had  suffered  wrong.  3.  He  builds  a  palace  of  ice  where  the 
torrents  fall.  4.  It  was  now  a  matter  of  curiosity  who  the 
old  gentleman  was.  5.  The  fires  of  the  bivouac  complete  what 
the  fires  kindled  by  the  battle  have  not  consumed.  6.  To- 
wards night,  the  schoolmaster  walked  over  to  the  cottage 
where  his  little  friend  lay  sick. 

7.  Until  you  become  lost  to  all  feeling  of  your  true  inter- 
est and  your  natural  dignity,  freedom  they  can  have  from 
none  but  you. — Burke.  8.  The  sound  of  the  wind  among  the 
leaves  was  no  longer  the  sound  of  the  wind,  but  of  the  sea. — 
Longfellow.  9.  These  are  follies  on  which  it  would  be  greater 
folly  to  remark. — Landor. 


SYNTAX— ELEMENTS.  167 

10.  I  am  now  at  liberty  to  confess  that  much  which  I  have, 
heard  objected  to  in  my  late  friend's  writings,  was  well  founded. 
11.  One  of  his  favorite  maxims  was,  that  the  only  way  to 
keep  a  secret  is  never  to  let  any  one  suspect  that  you  have 
one.  12.  How  his  essays  will  read,  now  they  are  brought 
together,  is  a  question  for  the  ^publishers,  who  have  thus  ven- 
tured to  draw  out  into  one  piece  his  "weaved-up  follies." — 
Lamb. 

13.  Examples  may  be  heaped  until  they  hide 

The  rules  that  they  were  made  to  render  plain. 

4.  Merciful  wind,  sing  me  a  hoarse,  rough  song, 
For  there  is  other  music  made  to-night 
That  I  would  fain  not  hear. 

15.  Woe  worth  the  chase !  woe  worth  the  day ! 
That  cost  thy  life,  my  gallant  gray. — Scott. 

16.  The  mountain  arose,  with  its  lofty  brow, 

While  its  shadow  was  sleeping  in  vales  below. — Clark. 


190.   EXERCISES   IN  SYNTHESIS. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  an  adjective  phrase. 
Models. — Love  of  display  is  a  sin.     Greed  of  gain  is  wrong. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  their  subjects  by  an  adjective  clause. 
Model. — The  house  which  you  see  yonder,  belongs  to  my  father. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  their  predicates  by  an  objective  phrase 
or  clause. 

Models. — I  wish  to  remain.     He  says  that  he  can  not  walk. 

Write  seven  sentences,  limiting  their  predicates  by  an  adverbial  phrase 
or  clause. 

Models. — I  study  to  learn.     I  will  come  when  you  call  me. 

Write  seven  sentences,  introducing  attendant  elements. 

Model. — I  think,  my  dear  friend,  that  you  are  mistaken. 
Analyze  the  sentences  you  have  written. 


168  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

KINDS   OF   ELEMENTS. 

191.    SIMPLE  ELEMENTS. 

1.  A  Simple  Element  is  one  which  is  not  restricted  by 

a  modifier. 

Ex. — "A  rich  man ; "  "A  man  of  wealth;  "  "A  man  who  is  wealthy.'1 
The  word  "rich,"  the  phrase  "of  wealth,"  and  the  clause  "who  is 
wealthy,"  are  simple  adjective  elements. 

2.  The  Grammatical  Subject  is  the  simple  subject. 

3.  The  Grammatical   Predicate  is  the  simple  predicate. 

Rem. — The  same  distinction  may  be  made  in  the  other  ele- 
ments. 

192.   MODELS  FOR   COMPLETE  ANALYSIS. 

XXVI.  "To  err  is  human." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

To  err  is  the  grammatical  subject;  human  is  the  gram- 
matical predicate;    is  is  the  copula. 

XXVII.  "I  am  in  danger." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

I  is  the  grammatical  subject;  am  is  the  grammatical  predi- 
cate. The  predicate,  "  am,"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  in. 
danger,  an   adverbial   element. 


193..  EXERCISES. 

1.  Banners  were  waving.  2.  To  forgive  is  divine.  3.  It  is 
pleasant  to  read.  4.  Stars  have  been  shining.  5.  Weapons 
were  procured.  6.  To  covet  is  sinful.  7.  To  quarrel  is  dis- 
graceful.    8.  To  rob  is  to  plunder.     9.  Vessels  are  in  sight. 


SYNTAX— CLASSES  OF  ELEMENTS.  169 


194.   COMPLEX  ELEMENTS. 

1.  A  Complex  Element  is  one  which  contains  a  lead- 
ing element,  restricted  in  meaning  by  one  or  more  mod- 
ifiers. 

2.  The  leading  element  is  called  the  basis. 

Ex.- -"A  very  rich  man."  "Kich"  is  the  basis  of  the  adjective 
element,  and  is  modified  by  "  very,"  an  adverbial  element.  "A  man 
faithful  when  others  were  faithless."  "  Faithful "  is  the  basis  of  the 
adjective  element,  and  is  modified  by  the  clause  "when  others 
were  faithless." 

Rem. — The  basis  of  an  element  need  not  be  pointed  out  or 
mentioned  in  analysis. 

3.  The  Complex  or  Logical  Subject  is  the  simple  sub- 
ject taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Rem.  I. — The  simple  subject,  when  a  noun,  may  be  modified: 

1.  By  an  adjective;  as,  "Loud  reports  followed." 

2.  By  a  participle;  as,  "The  hour  appointed  has  come." 

3.  By  a  possessive;  as,  "Georges  plan  succeeded.' 

4.  By  a  noun  in  the  same  case;  as,  "Gay    the  poet  is  dead." 

5.  By  a  phrase;  as,  "A  storm  of  applause  followed." 

6.  By  a  clause;  as,  "Money  which  I  earn  is  my  own." 

Rem.  2. — A  subject  may  have  all  the  preceding  modifica- 
tions in  the  same  sentence. 

Rem.  3. — When  the  simple  subject  is  a  pronoun,  it  may 
have  all  the  modifications  of  a  noun,  except  that  made  by  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case. 

Rem.  4. — An  infinitive  or  participial  noun,  used  as  a  subject, 
may  be  modified  (1)  as  a  noun,  by  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause  in 
the  nominative  case,  in  apposition  with  it;  (2)  as  a  verb,  by  the 
modifiers  of  a  verb. 

4.  The  Complex  or  Logical  Predicate  is  the  simple 
predicate  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 


[70  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Rem,  I. — The  simple  predicate,  when  a  verb,  may  be  modi- 
fied: 

1.  If  transitive,  by  an  object;  as,  "He  saves  money." 

2.  By  an  adverb;  as,  "The  horse  runs  swiftly." 

3.  By  &  phrase;  as,  "He  lives  in  Troy;"  "He  studies  to  learn" 

4.  By  a  clause;  as,  "He  knows  where  the  mushrooms  grow." 

Rem.  2.— When  the  predicate  is  an  adjective,  a  participle,  a 
noun,  or  any  thing  used  as  a  noun,  it  may  have  all  the  modifi- 
cations of  the  part  of  speech  with  which  it  is  classed. 

Rem.  3. — The  copula  is  usually,  but  not  always,  modified  by 
modal  adverbs  and  adverbs  of  time. 

Rem.  4. — A  predicate  may  have  all  the  modifications  given 
above  in  the  same  sentence. 

5.  A  Complex  Objective  Element  is  the  simple  object 
taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Rem. — A  complex  objective  element  may  be: 

1.  A  word,  modified  by  words,  phrases,  or  clauses;  as,  "We 
found  much  gold;"  "He  owns  the  house  on  the  hill;"  "I  love 
those  who  are  frank." 

2.  A  phrase,  modified  by  single  words,  phrases,  or  clauses; 
as,  "He  desires  to  learn  rapidly;"  "He  desires  to  learn  to  write;" 
"  He  desires  to  repeat  what  he  has  heard." 

3.  A  clause,  some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  another 
clause;  as,  "I  said  that  he  was  present  when  the  assault  was  made." 

6.  A  Complex  Adjective  Element  is  the  simple  adjec- 
tive element  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Rem. — A  complex  adjective  element  may  be: 

L  An  adjective,  modified  by  an  adverb;  as,  "A  very  large  lot." 

2.  A  participle,  with  all  the  modifiers  of  a  verb;  as,  "The 
young  man  was  seen  clandestinely  entering  a  dram-shop." 

3.  A  noun  or  pronoun,  with  the  modifications  of  a  noun  or 
pronoun;  as,  "  The  Carpenter  Elder's  house;"  "Thompson,  the 
faithful  guardian  of  our  cousins;  "  "  Our  own  dear  native  land." 


SYNTAX— CLASSES  OF  ELEMENTS.  171 

4.  A  phrase,  modified  by  a  word,  phrase,  or  clause;  as,  "A 
time  to  make  friends ;"  "A  time  to  learn  to  write;"  "A  time  to  re- 
peat what  you  have  learned." 

5.  A  clause,   some   part  of  which  is  modified   by  another 

clause;    as,   "A   man   who   is   angry  whenever    his   views  are  con- 
troverted." 

7.  A  Complex  Adverbial  Element  is  the  simple  ad- 
verbial element  taken  with  all  its  modifiers. 

Rem. — A  complex  adverbial  element  may  be: 

1.  An  adverb,  modified  by  a  single  word,  phrase,  or  clause; 
as,  "We  rode  very  rapidly;"  "It  is  too  badly  done  to  last;"  "He 
spoke  so  indistinctly  that  we  could  not  tinder  stand  him." 

2.  A  phrase,  modified  by  a  single  word,  phrase,  or  clause; 
as,  "I  am  ready  to  begin  the  work;"  "I  shall  be  ready  to  com- 
mence work  by  daylight ; "  "  I  am  ready  to  go  wherever  duty  calls 
me." 

3.  A  clause,  some  part  of  which  is  modified  by  another 
clause;  as,  "  He  is  afraid  that  you  will  not  return  before  he  leaves." 


195.   MODELS  FOR  COMPLETE  ANALYSIS. 

XXVIII.  "A  lad,  made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  played 
among  the  waste." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

"A  lad,  made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,"  is  the  logical 
subject,  and  "played  among  the  waste"  is  the  logical  predicate. 

Lad  is  the  grammatical  subject;  played  is  the  grammatical 
predicate.  The  subject,  "lad,"  is  modified  by  a,  a  simple  ad- 
jective element,  and  by  made  orphan  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  a 
complex  adjective  element.  "Made  orphan"  is  modified  by 
the  phrase  by  a  winter  shipwreck,  an  adverbial  element:  "ship- 
wreck" is  modified  by  a  and  winter,  adjective  elements. 

The  predicate,  "played,"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  among 
the  waste,  an  adverbial  element,  and  "waste"  by  the,  an  adjec- 
tive element.  "  Made  orphan "  is  an  abridged  proposition, 
equivalent  to  "that  was  made  an  orphan."     (See  Sec.  206.) 


172  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

XXIX.  "  He  who  does  as  he  lists,  without  regard  to  the 
wishes  of  others,  will  soon  cease  to  do  well." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  complex. 

"He  will  soon  cease  to  do  well"  is  the  principal  proposition: 
"  who  does  as  he  lists,  without  regard  to  the  wishes  of  others," 
the  complex  subordinate  proposition. 

"  He  who  does  as  he  lists,  without  regard  to  the  wishes  of 
others,"  is  the  logical  subject,  and  "  will  soon  cease  to  do 
well,"  the  logical  predicate. 

He  is  the  grammatical  subject  of  the  principal  proposition; 
will  cease  is  the  predicate.  The  subject,  "he,"  is  modified  by 
the  clause  who  does  as  he  lists,  etc.,  a  complex  adjective  ele- 
ment. 

Who  is  the  subject  of  this  dependent  proposition;  does  is- 
the  predicate;  "does"  is  modified  by  the  clause  as  he  lists,  an 
adverbial  element;  of  which  as  is  the  connective,  he  is  the 
subject,  and  lists  is  the  predicate;  also  by  the  phrase  without 
regard  to  the  wishes  of  others,  a  complex  adverbial  element,  of 
which  regard  is  modified  by  the  phrase  to  the  wishes  of  others, 
a  complex  adjective  element.  Wishes  is  modified  by  the,  an 
adjective  element,  and  by  the  phrase  of  others,  an  adjective 
element. 

"Will  cease,"  the  predicate,  is  modified  by  soon,  an  ad- 
verbial element,  and  by  the  phrase  to  do  well,  a  complex  ob- 
jective element;  of  which  to  do  is  modified  by  well,  an  ad- 
verbial element. 

196.   EXERCISES. 

1.  God's  balance,  watched  by  angels,  is  hung  across  the  sky. 
2.  My  eyes  pursued  him  far  away  among  the  honest  shoulders 
of  the  crowd.  3.  Nothing  is  law  that  is  not  reason.  4.  Vice 
itself  lost  half  its  evil  by  losing  all  its  grossness.  5.  There  is 
a  limit  at  which  forbearance  ceases  to  be  a  virtue.  6.  If  ye 
love  me,  keep  my  commandments.  7.  Were  I  not  Alexander, 
I  would  be  Diogenes.  8.  Unless  he  reforms  soon,  he  is  a 
ruined  man.     9.  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish. 

10.  Withdraw  thy  foot  from  thy  neighbor's  house,  lest  he 
weary  of  thee,  and  so  hate  thee.     11.  I  am  quite  sure  that  Mr 


SYNTAX— CLASSES  OF  ELEMENTS.  173 

Hutchins  rode  through  the  village  this  morning.  12.  He 
never  has  a  lesson,  because  he  is  too  lazy  to  study.  13.  Do 
not  forget  to  write  when  you  reach  home.  14.  Even  by 
means  of  our  sorrows,  we  belong  to  the  eternal  plan. 

15.  The  gentleman  who  was  dressed  in  brown-once-black, 
had  a  sort  of  medico-theological  exterior,  which  we  afterward 
found  to  be  representative  of  the  inward  man. 

16.  Every  art  was  practiced  to  make  them  pleased  with 
their  own  condition. — Johnson. 

17.  The  man  that  blushes  is  not  quite  a  brute. —  Young. 

18.  My  soul  is  an  enchanted  boat, 
Which,  like  a  sleeping  swan,  doth  float 

Upon  the  silver  waves  of  thy  sweet  singing. — Shelley. 


197.  COMPOUND  ELEMENTS. 

A  Compound  Element  consists  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent simple  or  complex  elements,  joined  by  coordi- 
nate conjunctions. 

Ex. — The  moon  and  stars  are  shining.    You  may  go  or  stay. 

Rem. — All  the  elements  of  a  sentence  may  be  compound. 


198.  MODELS  FOR  COMPLETE  ANALYSIS. 

XXX.  "Industry,  honesty,  and  economy  generally  insure 
success." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

"Industry,  honesty,  and  economy"  is  the  logical  subject; 
41  generally  insure  success"  is  the  logical  predicate. 

Industry,  honesty,  and  economy  is  the  compound  grammati- 
cal subject;  insure  is  the  grammatical  predicate.  The  subject 
is  not  modified.  The  predicate,  "  insure,"  is  modified  by  gen- 
erally, an  adverbial  element,  and  by  success,  an  objective  ele- 
ment. 


174  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

XXXI.  "  The  charities  that  soothe,  and  heal,  and  bless, 

Are  scattered  at  the  feet  of  man  like  flowers." — 

Wordsworth. 
This  is  a  sentence;    declarative ;    complex.     Name  the  principal 
and  the  subordinate  clause. 

"  The  charities  that  soothe,  and  heal,  and  bless "  is  the 
logical  subject:  "Are  scattered  at  the  feet  of  man  like  flow- 
ers" is  the  logical  predicate. 

Charities  is  the  grammatical  subject  of  the  principal  propo- 
sition; are  scattered  is  the  grammatical  predicate.  The  sub- 
ject, "charities,"  is  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element,  and 
by  the  clause  that  soothe,  and  heal,  and  bless,  an  adjective  ele- 
ment; of  which  that  is  the  subject,  and  soothe,  and  heal,  and 
bless  is  the  compound  predicate;   and   being  the  connective. 

The  predicate,  "  are  scattered,"  is  modified  (1)  by  the  phrase 
at  the  feet  of  man,  a  complex  adverbial  eleme"ht;  of  which 
"feet"  is  modified  by  the,  an  adjective  element,  and  by  the 
phrase  of  man,  an  adjective  element;  (2)  by  the  phrase  like 
flowers,  an  adverbial  element. 


199.   EXERCISES. 

I.  Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  the  constitution. 
2.  Youth  is  bright  and  lovely.  3.  He  is  neither  old  nor  in- 
firm. 4.  He  is  not  angry,  but  excited.  5.  They  wash,  iron, 
cook,  eat,  and  sleep  in  the  same  room.  6.  1  want  to  be  quiet, 
and  to  be  let  alone.  7.  The  book  which  I  loaned  you,  and 
which  you  lost,  was  a  present  from  my  father.  8.  To  live  in  a 
fine  house  and  drive  fast  horses  is  the  height  of  his  ambition. 

9.  All  the  girls  were  in  tears  and  white  muslins,  except  a 
select  two  or  three,  who  were  being  honored  with  a  private 
view  of  the  bride  and  bridesmaids,  up  stairs. 

10.  There  was  another  tap  at  the  door — a  smart,  potential 
tap,  which  seemed  to  say,  "Here  I  am,  and  in  I'm  coming." 

II.  Not  a  truth  has  to  art  or  to  science  been  given, 

But  brows  have  ached  for  it,  and  souls  toiled  and  3fcriven. 

Lytton. 


SYNTAX— CLASSES  OF  ELEMENTS.  175 


200.   CLASSIFICATION  OF   PHRASES. 

1.  Complex  elements  and  abridged  propositions  are 
sometimes  called   phrases. 

Rem. — The  basis  of  the  element,  the  manner  in  which  it 
modifies,  the  connective,  or  the  leading  word,  determines  the 
name  of  the  phrase. 

2.  Phrases  may  be: 

1.  Appositive;  as,  "  Washington,  the  father  of  his  country." 

2.  Adjective;  as,  "A  man,  tenacious  of  principle." 

3.  Adverbial ;  as,  "  He  lives  just  round  the  corner.1' 

4.  Prepositional ;  as,  "  We  walked  on  the  bank  of  the  river." 

5.  Infinitive;  as,  "He  hoped  to  receive  a  telegram." 

6.  Participial;  as,  "Being  unwell,  he  remained  at  home." 

7.  Absolute;  as,  "He  being  sick,  I  remained." 

8.  Independent;  as,  "O  my  ducats!" 

Rem.  I. — The  infinitive,  or  participial  phrase,  when  used  as 
subject,  is  called  the  Subject  Phrase:  when  used  as  predicate, 
the  Predicate   Phrase. 

Rem.  2. — The  absolute  phrase  is  an  abridged  proposition. 
It  usually  modifies  the  predicate  of  the  sentence  of  which  it 
forms  a  part,  but  may  modify  the  subject  and  predicate  com- 
bined. 

201.    CLASSIFICATION   OF   CLAUSES. 

Clauses  are  classified  with  reference  to  their  use  or 
position  in  sentences.     They  are: 

1.  The  Subject  Clause:  a  proposition  used  as  the  subject  of 
a  sentence;  as,  "How  the  accident  occurred,  is  not  known." 

2.  The  Predicate  Clause:  a  proposition  used  as  the  predi- 
cate of  a  sentence;  as,  "The  question  is,  How  did  he  obtain  the 
money  f  " 


176  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

3.  The  Relative  Clause:  a  dependent  proposition  introduced 
by  a  relative  pronoun ;  as,  "  The  vessel  which  you  see  yonder,  is  a 
sloop." 

4.  The  Appositive  Clause:  a  proposition  put  in  apposition 
with  a  noun;  as,  "The  question,  Are  we  a  nation?  is  now  an- 
swered." 

5.  The  Interrogative  Clause:  a  proposition  introduced  by  an 
interrogative  word;  as,  "Who  said  so?"  "What  vessel  is  that?" 
"Where  do  you  live?" 

6.  The  Objective  Clause:  a  proposition  used  as  an  objective 
element;   as,  "The  chairman  declared  that  the  motion  was  lost." 

7.  The  Adverbial  Clause:  a  proposition  used  as  an  adverbial 
element;  as,  "I  will  pay  you  when  I  receive  my  week's  wages.1' 

Rem.  I. — Subject,  predicate,  and  objective  clauses  are  used  as 
nouns. 

Rem.  2. — Belative  clauses  are  either  restrictive  or  explanatory. 
If  restrictive,  the  antecedent  is  usually  modified  by  a,  the,  or 
that;  as,  "The  vessel  which  capsized,  was  a  bark."  If  explana- 
tory, the  antecedent  is  not  so  modified;  as,  "Steamships,  which 
are  a  modern  invention,  make  quick  voyages." 

A  proposition  introduced  by  a  compound  relative  is  fre- 
quently equivalent  to  an  adverbial  element;  as,  "He  will  suc- 
ceed, whoever  may  oppose  him" 

Rem.  3. — Interrogative  clauses  may  be  introduced  by  inter- 
rogative pronouns,  interrogative  adjectives,  or  interrogative 
adverbs. 

Rem.  4. — Adverbial  clauses  may  be  classified  as  follows: 

1.  Temporal:  dependent  clauses  denoting  time;  as,  "I  was 
absent  when  the  accident  occurred." 

2.  Local:  dependent  clauses  denoting  place;  as,  "Go  where 
duty  calls  thee." 

3.  Causal:  dependent  clauses  denoting  cause;  as,  "He  is  be- 
loved, for  he  is  good." 

4.  Final:  dependent  clauses  denoting  a  purpose  or  a  result; 
as,  "We  came  that  we  might  assist  you;"  "Love  not  sleep,  lest 
thou  come  to  poverty." 


SYNTAX— CLASSES  OF  ELEMENTS.  177 

5.  Comparative:  dependent  clauses  expressing  comparison;  as, 
"He  is  older  than  I  [am];"    "Men  generally  die  as  they  live." 

6.  Conditional :  dependent  clauses  modifying  propositions 
containing  deductions  or  conclusions ;  as,  "  He  will  be  ruined, 
unless  he  reform;"  "I  would  pay  you,  if  I  could." 

7.  Concessive :  dependent  clauses  denoting  a  concession  or 
admission;  as,  "Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him." 

Rem.  5. — Two  clauses  which  mutually  qualify  are  called  cor- 
relative ;  as,  "  The  deeper  the  well,  the  cooler  the  water." 

202.  EXERCISES. 

Classify  the  phrases  and  clauses  in  the  following  sentences : 

I.  No  one  came  to  his  assistance.  2.  He  were  no  lion, 
were  not  Romans  hinds.  3.  I  would  that  ye  all  spake 
with  tongues.  4.  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself. 
5.  Launch  thy  bark,  mariner!  6.  He  made  them  give  up 
their  spoils.     7.  Go   quickly,   that  you  may   meet  them. 

8.  Voltaire,  who  might  have  seen  him,  speaks  repeatedly 
of  his  majestic  stature.  9.  The  French,  a  mighty  people,  com- 
bined for  the  regeneration  of  Europe.  10.  Not  many  genera- 
tions ago,  where  you  now  sit,  circled  with  all  that  exalts  and 
embellishes  civilized  life,  the  rank  thistle  nodded  in  the  wind, 
and  the  wild  fox  dug  his  hole  unscared. — Sprague. 

II.  Very  few  men,  properly  speaking,  live  at  present:  most 
are  preparing  to  live  another  time.  12.  I  lisped  in  numbers, 
for  the  numbers  came.  13.  While  the  bridegroom  tarried, 
they  all  slumbered  and  slept.  14.  Study  nature,  whose  laws 
and  phenomena  are  all  deeply  interesting.  15.  Its  qualities 
exist,  since  they  are  known,  and  are  known  because  they 
exist.  16.  At  ten  o'clock,  my  task  being  finished,  I  went 
down  to  the  river. 

17.  Some  say,  that  ever  'gainst  that  season  comes 
Wherein  our  Savior's  birth  is  celebrated, 
This  bird  of  warning  singeth  all  night  long: 
And  then  no  spirit  dares  stir  abroad; 
The  nights  are  wholesome :  then  no  planets  strike, 
No  fairy  takes,  nor  witch  hath  power  to  charm, 
So  hallowed  and  so  gracious  is  the  time. — Shakespeare. 
H.  G.-12. 


178  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


CONTRACTED    SENTENCES. 

Sentences  are  contracted  by  ellipsis,  abridgment,  or 
by  substituting  a  different  expression. 

Rem. — The  object  of  contraction  is  to  secure  conciseness 
of  expression  by  means  of  brevity  in  the  construction  of 
sentences. 

203.  ELLIPSIS. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  words  of  a 
sentence.     The  words  omitted  are  said  to  be  understood. 

Rem. — If  required  in  analysis  or  parsing,  the  words  omitted 
must  be  supplied. 

2.  A  Simple  Sentence  is  contracted  by  omitting  all, 
or  nearly  all,  but  the  most  important  part. 

1.  The  subject  may  be  omitted;  as,  " Come "  =  Come  thou,  or 
do  thou  come. 

2.  The  predicate  may  be  omitted;  as,  "Who  will  go?  He 
[will  go]."  "I'll  \_go~\  hence  to  London;"  "Ye  are  Christ's 
[disciples'].1' 

3.  Both  subject  and  predicate  may  be  omitted;  as,  "Water!" 
=Give  me  some  water;    "  Forward  !"  =  March  ye  forward. 

4.  The  object  may  be  omitted;  as,  "Whose  book  have  you? 
Johns"  =  I  have  John's  book. 

5.  The  verb  to  be,  in  all  its  forms,  may  be  omitted;  as, 
"Where  now  [are]  her  glittering  towers?"  "A  professed  Cath- 
olic, he  imprisoned  the  Pope "  =  Being  a  professed  Catholic, 
etc.;  "England's  friend,  Ireland's  foe"=To  be  England's  friend 
is  to  be  Ireland's  foe. 

6.  Prepositions  and  conjunctions  may  be  omitted ;  as,  "  Build 
[for]  me  here  seven  altars;"  "Woe  is  [to]  me;"  "I  know 
[that]  you  are  honest;"  "Each  officer,  [and]  each  private  did 
his  duty." 

Rem.  A  complex  sentence,  whose  subject  or  predicate  is  a  prop- 
osition, may  be  contracted  by  changing  the  proposition  to  an 


SYNTAX— CONTKACTED  SENTENCES.      179 

infinitive  or  participial  phrase;  as,  "That  I  may  remain  here, 
is  my  desire "=To  remain  here  is  my  desire;  "My  desire  is, 
that  I  may  remain  here"  =  My  desire  is,  to  remain  here." 

3.  A  Compound  Sentence  may  be  contracted  by  unit- 
ing the  parts  not  common  to  all  its  members,  and  using 
the  common  parts  but  once. 

Ex.  — "  Exercise  strengthens  the  constitution,  and  temperance 
strengthens  the  constitution  "  =  Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen 
the  constitution.  "Behold  my  mother  and  behold  my  brethren  ,7  = 
Behold  my  mother  and  my  brethren. 


204.   MODELS   FOR  ANALYSIS. 

XXXII.  "Kest." 

This  is  a  sentence;  imperative;  simple. 

Thou,  understood,  is  the  subject;   rest  is  the  predicate. 

XXXIII.   "Build  me  here  seven  altars." 

This  is  a  sentence;  imperative;  simple. 

Thou,  understood,  is  the  subject;  build  is  the  predicate. 
The  predicate,  "  build,"  is  modified  by  altars,  an  objective 
element,  which  is  modified  by  seven,  an  adjective  element. 
"Build"  is  also  modified  by  here  and  the  phrase  for  mej 
adverbial  elements. 

XXXIV.  "  He  spake  as  one  having  authority." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative ;  complex. 

"He  spake"  is  the  principal  clause;  "as  one  having  au- 
thority speaks,"  the  subordinate  clause. 

He  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause;  spake  is  the 
predicate.  The  predicate,  "spake,"  is  modified  by  the  clause 
as  one  having  authority  speaks,  an  adverbial  element.  One 
is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause;  speaks  is  the  predi- 
cate. The  subject,  "  one,"  is  modified  by  having,  an  adjec- 
tive element,  which  is  modified  by  authority,  an  objective  ele- 
men.     As  is  the  connective. 


180  ENGLISH  GKAMMAE. 

XXXV.  "He  is  worth  more  than  you." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  complex. 

"He  is  worth  more"  is  the  principal  clause;  "than  you  are 
worth,"  the  subordinate  clause. 

He  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause;  worth  is  the  predi- 
cate; is  is  the  copula.  The  predicate,  "worth,"  is  modified  by 
the  phrase  []  more,  an  adverbial  element,  "more"  being  an' 
adjective  used  as  a  noun  in  the  objective  case  without  a  gov- 
erning word.  "More,"  as  an  adjective  in  the  comparative  de- 
gree,  is  modified  by  the  clause  than  you  are  worth,  an  adverbial 
element.  You  is  the  subject  of  the  subordinate  clause;  worth 
is  the  predicate;  are  is  the  copula.     Than  is  the  connective. 

205.    EXERCISES. 

1.  Advance.  2.  Up,  comrades,  up.  3.  Quick,  quick,  or  we 
are  lost.  4.  Honest,  my  lord?  5.  Impossible!  6.  This  done, 
we  instantly  departed.  7.  Thou  denied  a  grave!  8.  What 
would  content  you?  Talent?  9.  How,  now,  Jenkinson?  10.  A 
rope  to  the  side!  11.  Kather  he,  than  I.  12.  The  orphan  of 
St.  Louis,  he  became  the  adopted  child  of  the  Eepublic. 

13.  Seest  thou  a  man  wise  in  his  own  conceit?  There  is 
more  hope  of  a  fool  than  of  him.  14.  Are  you  fond  of  skat- 
ing? Somewhat.  15.  Horace  is  older  than  I?  16.  That  build- 
ing is  as  large  as  the  capitol. 

17.  Multitudes  of  little  floating  clouds, 

Ere  we,  who  saw,  of  change  were  conscious,  pierced 
Through  their  ethereal  texture,  had  become 
Vivid  as  fire. —  Wordsworth. 

18.  Then  here's  to  our  boyhood,  its  gold  and  its  gray! 
The  stars  of  its  winter,  the  dews  of  its  May ! 

And  when  we  have  done  with  our  life-lasting  toys, 
Dear  Father,  take  care  of  thy  children,  the  Boys! — 

O.  W.  Holmes. 

19.  Wisdom,  judgment,  prudence,  and  firmness  were  his 
predominant  traits.  20.  Rural  employments  are  certainly  nat- 
ural,  amusing,   and    healthy.      21.  He    had    a    good    mind,    a 


SYNTAX— COMPLEX  SENTENCES.       181 

sound  judgment,  and  a  vivid  imagination.  22.  He  is  a  good, 
faithful,  and  generous  boy.  23.  Man  is  fearfully  and  wonder- 
fully made. 

24.  To  love  God  and  to  do  good  to  men  are  the  leading 
purposes  of  every  Christian.  25.  Education  expands  and  ele- 
vates the  mind.  26.  Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait.  27.  I  am 
not  the  advocate  of  indolence  and  improvidence.  28.  During 
our  voyage,  we  whiled  away  our  time  in  reading,  in  writing  a 
journal,  and  in  studying  navigation. 

29.  That  the  climate  of  the  northern  hemisphere  has 
changed,  and  that  its  mean  temperature  nearly  resembled 
that  of  the  tropics,  is  the  opinion  of  many  naturalists. — Lyett. 
30.  The  writings  of  the  sages  show  that  the  best  empire  is 
self-government,  and  that  subduing  our  passions  is  the  noblest 
of  conquests. 

31.  The  chastity  of  honor,  which  felt  a  stain  like  a  wound, 
which  inspired  courage  while  it  mitigated  ferocity,  which  en- 
nobled whatever  it  touched,  and  under  which  vice  itself  lost 
half  its  evil  by  losing  its  grossness,  is  gone. — Burke. 

32.  When  public  bodies  are  to  be  addressed  on  momentous 
occasions,  when  great  interests  are  at  stake  and  strong  pas- 
sions excited,  nothing  is  valuable  in  speech  further  than  it 
is  connected  with  high  intellectual  and  moral  endowments. — 
Webster. 

206.  ABRIDGMENT. 

1.  Complex  Sentences  are  often  changed  into  simple 
sentences  by  abridging  their  subordinate  clauses. 

2.  Contracted  clauses  are  called  abridged  propositions. 
Ex. —  "We  came  that  we  might  assist  2/ow"=We  came  to  assist  you. 

"I  believe  that  he  is  honest"  =  1  believe  him  to  be  honest. 

Rem. — There  is  an  essential  difference  between  a  sentence 
shortened  by  ellipsis  and  an  abridged  proposition.  In  the 
former,  the  omitted  .words  are  clearly  implied,  and  must  be 
restored  before  the  sentence  can  be  analyzed  or  parsed;  in 
the  latter,  an  equivalent  expression  is  substituted  for  an  en- 
tire proposition.  The  predicate  is  always  retained,  but  is  used 
as  an  assumed  attribute,  the  assertion  being  wholly  omitted. 


182  ENGLISH  GKAMMAE. 

3.  To  abridge  a  subordinate  clause: 

1st.  Drop  the  subject,  if  it  be  already  expressed  in  the 
principal  clause;  if  not,  retain  it — changing  its  case  to  the 
possessive,  objective,  or  absolute. 

2d.  Drop  the  connective,  and  change  the  copula  or  princi- 
pal verb  to  a  participle,  a  participial  noun,  or  an  infinitive. 

Rem.  I. — In  abridging  a  proposition,  when  the  copula  or 
principal  verb  is  changed  to  the  infinitive  mode,  a  noun  or 
pronoun  used  as  subject  or  predicate  must  be  changed  to  the 
objective  case. 

Ex.— 1.  "  I  knew  that  it  was  he  W=I  knew  it  to  be  him.  2.  "  The 
merchant  ordered  that  the  goods  should  be  shipped  "=The  merchant 
ordered  the  goods  to  be  shipped. 

When  the  copula  or  principal  verb  is  changed  to  a  par- 
ticipial noun,  the  subject  is  changed  to  the  possessive  case; 
but  a  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  predicate,  remains  un- 
changed in  the  nominative. 

Ex. — 1.  "I  was  not  aware  that  it  was  he"=I  was  not  aware  of 
its  being  he.  2.  "That  he  was  a  farmer  promoted  his  election "— 
His  being  a  farmer  promoted  his  election. 

When  the  copula  or  principal  verb  is  changed  to  a  par- 
ticiple, the  subject  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  absolute 
with   it. 

Ex. — 1.  "The  fair  was  not  held,  because  the  weather  was  unfa- 
vorable "  =  The  weather  being  unfavorable,  the  fair  was  not  held. 
2.  "When  the  sun  rose,  we  pursued  our  journey "  =  The  sun  being 
risen,  we  pursued  our  journey. 

Rem.  2. — Sometimes  an  infinitive  is  an  abridged  proposition, 
the  subject  being  omitted  because  it  is  contained  in  the  prin- 
cipal clause, 

Ex.— "I  told  him  to  go;"  equivalent  to,  I  told  him  that  he  should 
go.  In  this  sentence,  to  go  is  the  direct  object  of  told,  and  him  the 
indirect  object.  The  expression  "  him  to  go  "  resembles  an  abridged 
proposition  in  form  only. 

Rem.  3. — The  abridged  form  of  an  adjective  clause  is  a  par- 
ticipial, infinitive,  or  prepositional  phrase. 


SYNTAX— ANALYSIS.  183 

Ex. — "  Our  friends  who  live  in  the  city  "  =  Our  friends  living  in  ike 
city  =  Our  friends  in  the  city.  "A  book  that  may  amuse  you "  =  A 
book  to  amuse  you. 

Rem.  4. — The  abridged  form  of  an  adverbial  clause  is  a  par- 
ticipial, infinitive,  prepositional,  or  absolute  phrase. 

Ex. — "When  we  heard  the  explosion,  we  hastened  to  the  spot"  = 
Hearing  the  explosion,  we  hastened,  etc. ;  "  I  attend  school  that  I 
may  learn"  =  I  attend  school  to  learn;  "If  he  be  economical,  he  will 
become  rich "  =  He  will  become  rich  by  being  economical;  "When  the 
soldiers  arrived,  the  mob  dispersed  "  =  The  soldiers  having  arrived,  etc. 

Rem.  5. — The  abridged  form  of  an  objective  clause  is  a  noun 
or  pronoun  modified  by  an  infinitive  phrase. 

Ex. — "  We  wish  that  you  would  stay "  =  We  wish  you  to  stay.  "  I 
thought  that  he  was  a  merchant"  =  1  thought  him  to  be  a  merchant. 

207.   MODELS  FOR  ANALYSIS. 

XXXVI.  "I  know  him  to  be  a  sailor." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

I  is  the  subject;  know  is  the  predicate.  The  predicate  is 
modified  by  the  abridged  proposition  him  to  be  a  sailor,  equiv- 
alent to  "that  he  is  a  sailor,"  an  objective  element.  Him  is 
modified  by  the  phrase  to  be  a  sailor,  an  adjective  element; 
sailor  by  a,  an  adjective  element. 

XXXVII.  "I  was  aware  of  his  being  my  enemy." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

I  is  the  subject;  aware  is  the  predicate;  was  is  the  copula. 
The  predicate,  "aware,"  is  modified  by  the  abridged  proposi- 
tion of  his  being  my  enemy,  an  adverbial  element,  equivalent 
to,  "  that  he  was  my  enemy."  Being  is  modified  by  his,  an 
adjective  element;  enemy,  by  my,  an  adjective  element. 

XXXVIII.  "The  shower  having  passed,  we  resumed  our 
journey." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  simple. 

We  is  the  subject;  resumed  is  the  predicate.  "Resumed" 
is  modified  by  journey,  an  objective  element,  which  is  modi- 


184  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

fied  by  our,  an  adjective  element.  "Resumed"  is  also  modi- 
fied by  the  abridged  proposition  the  shower  having  passed, 
equivalent  to  "when  the  shower  had  passed."  "Shower"  is 
modified  by  the  and  having  passed,  adjective  elements. 


208.   EXERCISES 

Analyze    the  following    sentences,   giving    equivalent   clauses    for   the 
abridged  propositions : 

1.  Caesar  having  crossed  the  Rubicon,  Pompey  prepared  for 
battle.  2.  Having  accumulated  a  large  fortune,  he  retired  from 
business.  3.  Being  but  dust,  be  humble  -and  wise.  4.  Judging 
from  his  dress,  I  should  pronounce  him  an  artisan. 

5.  I  believe  him  to  be  an  honest  man.  6.  There  is  no  hope 
of  his  recovering  his  health.  7.  There  is  no  prospect  of  the 
storm's  abating.  8.  Having  been  detained  by  this  accident, 
he  lost  the  opportunity  of  seeing  them. 

9.  Having  annoyed  us  thus  for  a  time,  they  began  to  form 
themselves  into  close  columns,  six  or  eight  abreast. — Jane 
Taylor. 

10.  My  story  being  done, 

She  gave  me  for  my  pains  a  world  of  sighs. — Shakespeare. 


209.  DIRECTIONS   FOR  ANALYSIS. 

SENTENCES. 

I.  In  analyzing: 

1.  Read  the  sentence. 

2.  Determine,  from  its  form  and  use,  whether  it  is  declara- 
tive, interrogative,  imperative,  or  exclamatory. 

3.  Determine  whether  it  is  simple,  complex,  or  compound. 

4.  Arrange  all  the  parts  in  natural  order. 

5.  If  necessary  for  analysis  or  parsing,  supply  all  ellipses. 

II.  If  it  is  a  simple  sentence: 

1.  Point  out  the  logical  subject  and  logical  predicate. 


SYNTAX— ANALYSIS.  185 

2.  Point  out  the  grammatical  subject  and  grammatical  pred- 
icate. 

3.  Determine  whether  the  subject  is  simple,  complex,  or  com- 
pound; and  when  complex,  point  out  and  classify  its  modifiers 
with  their  qualifications. 

4.  Determine  whether  the  predicate  is  simple,  complex,  or 
compound;  and  when  complex,  point  out  and  classify  ( 1 )  its 
objective  modifiers,  (2)  its  adverbial  modifiers,  with  their 
qualifications. 

5.  Point  out  the  attendant  elements,  and  all  the  connect- 


Ill.  If  it  is  a  complex  sentence: 

1.  Analyze  the  principal  clause  as  in  II. 

2.  Analyze  the  subordinate  clause  or  clauses  as  in  II. 

IV. — If  it   is  a  compound  sentence,   each   member  should   be 
analyzed  as  a  simple  or  complex  sentence,  as  in  II  or  III. 

ELEMENTS. 

V. — 1.  If  an  element  is  a  single  word,  it  is  completely  reduced. 
2.  If  an  element  is  a  phrase  or  a  clause,  determine: 

a.  The  connective,  and  the  parts  it  joins. 

b.  In  a  phrase,  determine  the  antecedent  and  subsequent 
terms  of  relation  of  the  preposition. 

c.  In  a  clause,  point  out  the  subject  and  predicate. 

3.  If  an  element  is  complex : 

a.  Eeduce  it  to  simple  elements. 

4.  If  an  element  is  compound: 

a.  Separate  it  into  its  component  simple  elements. 

b.  Point  out  and  classify  the  connective  which  joins  them. 

c.  Dispose  of  each  element  separately,  as  in  1  and  2  above. 

Rem. — The  sentence  being  reduced  by  analysis  to  the  parts 
of  speech  of  which  it  is  composed,  let  the  teacher  select  such 
words  as  should  be  parsed,  and  instruct  his  pupils  how  to 
dispose  of  them  according  to  the  "models  for  parsing." 


186  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 


210.   MODEL  FOR  COMPLETE  ANALYSIS. 

XXXIX.  "  The  patriot,  whom  the  corrupt  tremble  to  see  arise, 
may  well  feel  a  grateful  satisfaction  in  the  mighty  power 
which  heaven  has  delegated  to  him,  when  he  thinks  that 
he  has  used  it  for  those  purposes  only  which  heaven  ap- 
proves." 

This  is  a  sentence;  declarative;  complex.  It  is  composed  of  six 
clauses.     The  principal  clause  is : 

The  patriot  may  well  feel  a  grateful  satisfaction  in  the  mighty 
power. 

The  subordinate  clauses  are: 

1.  Whom  the  corrupt  tremble  to  see  arise; 

2.  Which  heaven  has  delegated  to  him; 

3.  When  he  thinks; 

4.  That  he  has  used  it  for  those  purposes  only ; 

5.  Which  heaven  approves. 

"Patriot"  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  clause;  "  may  feel" 
is  the  predicate. 

The  subject,  "patriot"  is  modified  (1)  by  "the"  an  adjective 
element,  and  (2)  by  the  clause  "whom  the  corrupt  tremble  to  see 
arise"  an  adjective  element;  of  which  "whom"  is  the  connects 
ive,  "corrupt"  is  the  subject,  and  "tremble"  is  the  predicate. 
"Corrupt"  is  modified  by  "the"  an  adjective  element;  "tremble" 
is  modified  by  the  phrase  "to  see"  an  adverbial  element; 
which  is  modified  by  "  whom"  an  objective  element,  and 
"whom"  is  modified  by  the  phrase  "  [to~]  arise"  an  adjective 
element. 

The  predicate,  "may  feel"  is  modified  (1)  by  "well"  an  ad- 
verbial element;  (2)  by  "satisfaction"  an  objective  element; 
which  is  modified  by  "a"  and  "grateful"  adjective  elements; 
and  (3)  by  the  phrase  "in  the  mighty  power  which  heaven  has 
delegated  to  him"  an  adverbial  element.  "Power"  is  modified 
(1)  by  "the"  and  "mighty"  adjective  elements;  (2)  by  the 
clause  "which  heaven  has  delegated  to  him"  an  adjective  element; 
pf  which  "which"  is   the   connective,  "heaven"  is  the  subject, 


SYNTAX— EXEKCISES.  187 

and  "has  delegated"  is  the  predicate:  "has  delegated11  is  modi- 
fied (1)  by  "which,11  an  objective  element;  (2)  by  the  phrase 
"to  him,1'  an  adverbial  element;  of  which  "to11  is  the  con- 
nective, and  "him11  is  the  object. 

"May  feel11  is  modified  (4)  by  the  clause  "when  he  thinks11 
etc.,  an  adverbial  element;  of  which  "when11  is  the  connective, 
"he11  is  the  subject,  and  "thinks11  is  the  predicate.  "Thinks11 
is  modified  by  the  clause  "that  he  has  used  it,11  etc.,  an  object- 
ive element;  of  which  "that11  is  the  connective,  "he11  is  the 
subject,  and  "has  used11  is  the  predicate.  "Has  used11  is  modi' 
fied  (1)  by  "it,1''  an  objective  element;  (2)  by  the  phrase  "for 
those  purposes  only11  etc.,  an  adverbial  element.  "Purposes11  is 
modified  (1)  by  "those11  and  "only"  adjective  elements;  and 
(2)  by  the  clause  "which  heaven  approves11  an  adjective  element; 
of  which  "which11  is  the  connective,  "heaven11  is  the  subject, 
and  "approves11  is  the  predicate.  "Approves11  is  modified  by 
"which11  an  objective  element. 


211.  BRIEF  METHOD  OP  ANALYSIS. 

"Patriot11  is  the  subject;  "may  feel11  is  the  predicate. 

The  subject,  "patriot11  is  modified  (1)  by  "the11  an  adjective 
element,  and  (2)  by  the  clause  "whom  the  corrupt  tremble  to  see 
arise11  an  adjective  element. 

The  predicate,  "may  feel11  is  modified  (1)  by  "well11  an  ad- 
verbial element,  denoting  manner;  (2)  by  "a  grateful  satisfac- 
tion,11 a  complex  objective  element;  (3)  by  the  phrase  "in  the 
mighty  power  which  .  .  .  him11  a  complex  adverbial  element; 
and  (4)  by  the  clause  "when  he  thinks  .  .  .  approves11  a  com 
plex  adverbial  element,  denoting  time. 


212.   MISCELLANEOUS  EXAMPLES. 

1.  Hypocrisy  is  a  sort  of  homage  that  vice  pays  to  virtue. 

2.  The  gods  have  set  a  price  on  every  real  and  noble  pleasure. 

3.  He  was  a  very  young  boy;   quite  a  little  child.     4.  It  has 
all  the  contortions  of  the  sibyl,  without  the  inspiration. — Burke, 


188  ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 

5.  "Well,  what  is  it?"  said  my  lady  Brook.  6.  Suddenly 
the  watch  gave  the  alarm  of  "A  sail  ahead!"  7.  He  saw  a 
star  shoot  from  heaven,  and  glittering  in  its  fall,  vanish  upon 
the  earth.     8.  Sweet  are  thy  murmurs,  0  stream! — Ossian. 

9.  Their  slumbers  are  sound,  and  their  wakings  cheerful. 
10.  This  were  a  wicked  pretension,  even  though  the  whole 
family  were  destroyed. — Cowley.  11.  And  behold  there  came 
a  voice  unto  him,  and  said,  What  dost  thou  here,  Elijah? — 
Bible. 

12.  I  passed  the  house  many  successive  days.  13.  He  wore 
an  ample  cloak  of  black  sheep's  wool,  which,  having  faded 
into  a  dull  brown,  had  been  refreshed  by  an  enormous  patch 
of  the  original  color.  His  countenance  was  that  of  the  faded 
part  of  his  cloak. — Bryant. 

14.  The  line  which  bisects  the  vertical  angle  of  a  triangle, 
divides  the  base  into  segments  proportional  to  the  adjacent 
sides.  15.  He  is  so  good,  he  is  good  for  nothing.  16.  The 
clouds  are  divided  in  heaven:  over  the  green  hills  flies  the 
inconstant  sun:  red,  through  the  stony  vale,  comes  down  the 
stream  of  the  hills. — Ossian. 

17.  The  accusing  angel  flew  up  to  Heaven's  chancery  with 
the  oath,  and  blushed  as  he  gave  it  in.  And  the  recording 
angel,  as  he  wrote  it  down,  dropped  a  tear  on  the  word,  and 
blotted  it  out  forever. — Sterne. 

18.  In  the  awful  mystery  of  human  life,  it  is  a  consolation 
sometimes  to  believe  that  our  mistakes,  perhaps  even  our  sins, 
are  permitted  to  be  instruments  of  our  education  for  immor- 
tality. 19.  Even  if  his  criticisms  had  been  uniformly  indul- 
gent, the  position  of  the  nobles  and  leading  citizens,  thus 
subjected  to  a  constant,  but  secret  superintendence,  would 
have  been  too  galling  to  be  tolerated. — Motley. 

20.  No  ax  had  leveled  the  giant  progeny  of  the  crowded 
groves,  in  which  the  fantastic  forms  of  withered  limbs,  that 
had  been  blasted  and  riven  by  lightning,  contrasted  strangely 
with  the  verdant  freshness  of  a  younger  growth  of  branches. — 
Bancroft. 

21.  The  sun  was  now  resting  his  huge  disk  upon  the  edge 
of  the  level    ocean,  and   gilding   the   accumulation   of  clouds 


SYNTAX— EXEECISES.  189 

through  which  he  had  traveled  the  livelong  day;  and  which 
now  assembled  on  all  sides,  like  misfortunes  and  disasters 
around  a  sinking  empire  and  falling  monarch. — Scott. 

22.  It  is,  therefore,  a  certain  and  a  very  curious  fact,  that 
the  representative,  at  this  time,  of  any  great  whig  family,  who 
probably  imagines  that  he  is  treading  in  the  footsteps  of  his 
forefathers,  in  reality,  while  adhering  to  their  party  names,  is 
acting  against  almost  every  one  of  their  party  principles. — 
Lord  Mahon. 

23.  Kivers  will  always  have  one  shingly  shore  to  play  over, 
where  they  may  be  shallow,  and  foolish,  and  childlike;  and 
another  steep  shore,  under  which  they  can  pause,  and  purify 
themselves,  and  get  their  strength  of  waves  fully  together  for 
due  occasion. — JRuskin. 

24.  I  seem  to  have  been  only  like  a  boy  playing  on  the 
sea-shore,  and  diverting  myself  in  now  and  then  finding  a 
smoother  pebble  or  a  prettier  shell  than  ordinary,  whilst  the 
great  ocean  of  truth  lay  all  undiscovered  before  me. — Newton. 

25.  "We  're  nettles,  some  of  us, 

And  give  offense  by  the  act  of  springing  up. — Browning. 

26.  The  twilight  deepened  round  us.     Still  and  black 
The  great  woods  climbed  the  mountain  at  our  back.  . 

27.  May  God  forgive  the  child  of  dust 

Who  seeks  to  know  where  Faith  should  trust. —  Whittier. 

28.  Honor  and  shame  from  no  condition  rise; 

Act  well  your  part,  there  all  the  honor  lies. — Pope. 

29.  Better  far 
Pursue  a  frivolous  trade  by  serious  means, 
Than  a  sublime  art  frivolously. 

30.  With  grave 
Aspect  he  rose,  and  in  his  rising  seemed 

A  pillar  of  state;  deep  on  his  front  engraven, 
Deliberation  sat,  and  public  care; 
And  princely  counsel  in  his  face  yet  shone, 
Majestic,  though  in  ruin. — Milton. 


190  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

31.  Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled, 
And  still  where  many  a  garden  flower  grows  wild, 
There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose, 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose. 

A  man  he  was  to  all  the  country  dear, 

And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year. — Goldsmith. 

32.  As  when  upon  a  tranced  summer  night 
Those  green-robed  senators  of  mighty  woods. 
Tall  oaks,  branch-charmed  by  the  earnest  stars, 
Dream,  and  so  dream  all  night  without  a  stir, 
Save  from  one  gradual,  solitary  gust, 

Which  comes  upon  the  silence,  and  dies  off, 
As  if  the  ebbing  air  had  but  one  wave : 
So  came  these  words,  and  went. — Keats. 

33.  When  Freedom,  from  her  mountain  height, 

Unfurled  her  standard  to  the  air, 
She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night 

And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there. 
She  mingled  with  its  gorgeous  dyes 
The  milky  baldric  of  the  skies, 
And  striped  its  pure,  celestial  white, 
With  streakings  of  the  morning  light. — Drake. 


RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

Rule  I. — The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

Rule  II. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  predicate 
of  a  proposition,  is  in  the   nominative  case. 

Rule  III. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or 
thing,  is  in  the   possessive  case. 

Rule  IV. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  same 
person  or  thing,  is  in  the  same  case. 


SYNTAX— EULES.  191 

Rule  V. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  independently, 
is  in  the  nominative  absolute  case. 

Rule  VI. — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  in  the 
active  voice,  or  of  its  participles,  is  in  the  objective 
case. 

Rule  VII. — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the  ob- 
jective case. 

Rule  VIII. — Nouns  denoting  time,  distance,  measure, 
direction,  or  value,  after  verbs  and  adjectives,  are  in 
the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word. 

Rule  IX. — Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  anteced- 
ents in  person,  gender,  and   number. 

Rule  X. — A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  antecedents 
in  the  singular,   connected  by  and,  must  be  plural. 

Rule  XI. — A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  antecedents 
in  the  singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  sin- 
gular. 

Rule  XII. — An  adjective  or  a  participle  belongs  to 
some  noun  or  pronoun. 

Rule  XIII. — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
person  and  number. 

Rule  XIV. — A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in 
the  singular,  connected  by  and,  must  be  plural. 

Rule  XV. — A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in 
the  singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  sin- 
gular. 

•  Rule    XVI. — An   infinitive    may   be   used   as   a   noun 
in  any  case  except  the  possessive. 


[92  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR 

Rule   XVII. — An  infinitive  not  used  as  a  noun,  de- 
pends upon  the  word  it  limits. 

Rule   XVIII. — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  par- 
ticiples, and  adverbs. 

Rule   XIX. — A  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its 
object  to  the  word  upon  which  the  latter  depends. 

Rule   XX. — Coordinate  conjunctions  join  similar  ele- 
ments. 

Rule   XXI. — Subordinate   conjunctions  join  dissimilar 
elements. 

Rule  XXII. — An  interjection  has  no  dependence  upon 
other  words. 


213.   SUBJECT-NOMINATIVE. 

Rule  I. — The  subject  of  a  proposition  is  in  the  nom- 
inative case. 

Rem.  I. — Any  thing  that  may  be  used  as  a  noun,  may  be 
the  subject;  as,  "A  is  a  vowel:"  "To  lie  is  base;"  "What  time 
he  took  orders  doth  not  appear." 

Rem.  2. — The  subject  generally  precedes  the  predicate,  but 
is  placed  after  it,  or  the  first  auxiliary,  (1)  When  a  wish  is 
expressed  by  the  potential;  as,  "May  you  prosper:  (2)  When 
if  or  though,  denoting  a  supposition,  is  suppressed;  as,  "Had 
they  been  wise,  they  would  have  listened  to  me:"  (3)  When 
the  verb  is  in  the  imperative  mode,  or  is  used  interrogatively; 
as,  "Rest  ye;"  "Why  do  you  persist?" 

Rem.  3. — The  subject  of  the  imperative  mode  is  usually 
omitted;  as,  "Depart!"  "Shut  the  door."  It  is  also  omitted 
after  while,  when,  if,  though,  or  than,  when  the  verb  is  made 
one  of  the  terms  of  a  comparison;  as,  "He  talks  while  [he  is] 
writing;"  "He  is  kind  when  [he  is]  sober;"  "I  will  come,  \f 
[it  be]  possible;"  "They  are  honest,  though  [they  are]  poor;" 
"He  has  more  knowledge  than  [he  has]  wisdom." 


SYNTAX— RULES.  193 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected,  analyzed,  and  parsed : 

1.  Him  and  me  study  grammar.  2.  I  never  saw  larger  horses 
than  them  are.  3.  Me  and  John  sit  together.  4.  Whom  be- 
sides 1  do  you  suppose  got  a  prize?  5.  I  am  as  tall  as  he,  but 
she  is  taller  than  him.  6.  Whom  do  you  suppose  has  come  to 
visit  us?    7.  We  sorrow  not  as  them  that  have  no  hope. 

8.  Thrice  is  he  armed  who  hath  his  quarrel  just:  and  him. 
but  naked,  though  locked  up  in  steel,  whose  conscience  with 
injustice  is  corrupted.  9.  Who  wants  an  orange? — Me.  10.  No 
other  pupil  is  so  studious  as  her.  11.  He  is  older  than  me. 
12.  I  know  not  whom  else  are  expected.  13.  None  of  his  com- 
panions  is  more  beloved  than  him. 


214.  PREDICATE-NOMINATIVE. 

Rule  II. — A  ngun  or  pronoun,  used  as  the  predicate 
of  a  proposition,  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

Rem.  I. — The  predicate-nominative  denotes  the  same  person 
or  thing  as  the  subject;  and  must  agree  with  it  in  case,  and 
usually  in  gender  and  number.  It  may  be  any  thing  that 
may  be  used  as  a  noun;  as,  "That  letter  is  B;"  "To  work  is 
to  pray;"  "The  command  was,  'Storm  the  fort  at  daybreak.'" 

Rem.  2. — In  questions,  and  when  the  predicate  is  emphatic- 
ally distinguished,  the  subject  and  predicate  change  places; 
as,  "Who  is  that  man?"  "Are  you  the  ticket  agent?"  "His 
pavilion  round  about  him  were  dark  waters  and  thick  clouds 
ot  the  sky." 

Rem.  3. — The  neuter  pronoun  it,  as  subject,  may  represent 
a  noun  or  pronoun  of  any  person,  number,  or  gender,  as  predi- 
cate; as,  "It  is  I;"  "It  was  you;"  "It  is  Sarah." 

EXERCISES, 

To  be  corrected,  analyzed,  and  parsed: 

1.  It  is  me.     2.  It  was  her  and  him  who  you  saw.     3.  If  I 
were  him,  I  would  go  to  Europe.     4.  Whom  do  you  say  they 
were?     5.  I  do  not  know  whom  they  are? 
H.  G.-13. 


194  ENGLISH  GBAMMAR, 

6.  It  was  not  me  nor  him  who  played  truant.  7.  It  is  not 
them  who  are  to  blame.  8.  I  disbelieve  it  to  be  he.  9.  1 
have  no  doubt  of  its  being  them. 


215.   POSSESSIVE   CASE. 

Rule  III. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  denoting  a  different  person  or 
thing,  is   in  the   possessive   case. 

Rem.  I. — The  possessive  term  is  always  an  adjective  element. 
It  may  limit  a  noun  of  any  class  or  form;  as,  "Our  houses;" 
"O  my  ducats!"  "Our  country's  welfare;"  "All  their  dearest 
hopes  were  blasted;"  "His  being  a  foreigner  should  not  in- 
duce ui,  to  underrate  him." 

Rem.  2. — The  relation  of  possession  may  be  expressed  by  the 
preposition  of,  with  the  objective;  as,  "My  friend's  house "  = 
The  house  of  my  friend.  This  form  should  be  used  when  two 
or  more  nouns  in  the  possessive  would  otherwise  come  to- 
gether; as,  "My  friends  father's  house "  =  The  house  of  my 
friends  father. 

Rem.  3.  —  The  limited  noun  is  sometimes  omitted;  as, 
"This  house  is  the  doctor's  [house]."  "We  visited  St.  Paul's 
[church]."     "This  is  a  farm  of  my  father's  [farms]." 

Rem.  4. — The  limited  noun  need  not  be  plural  because  the 
possessive  is  plural;  as,  "Their  judgment  is  good;"  "Our  do 
dsion  is  made;"  "  The  women's  hope  failed." 

Rem.  5. — When  a  noun  is  put  in  apposition  with  a  noun 
or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case,  the  sign  may  be  omitted; 
as,  "This  was  Webster's  opinion,  the  most  eminent  lawyer  in 
the  country." 

Rem.  6. — In  some  compound  words,  formed  from  the  pos- 
sessive and  the  word  limited  by  it,  both  the  hyphen  and  sign 
of  possession  are  omitted ;  as,  hogshead,  cats  head,  etc. 


SYNTAX— RULES.  195 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected  and  parsed : 

1.  The  boys  story  was  believed.  2.  He  wore  the  knight' s- 
templar's  costume.  3.  The  goods  were  sent  by  the  Merchants 
Union  Express.  4.  That  book  is  his'n.  5.  The  Bishop's  of 
Dublin's  palace.  6.  My  fathers  health  is  not  good.  7.  My 
book  is  larger  than  your's.  8.  The  mistake  was  the  teacher, 
not  the  pupil's. 

9.  The  general's  aids  horse  was  killed.  10.  No  one  could 
prevent  him  escaping.  11.  I  purchased  this  at  Penfields',  the 
bookseller's.  12.  Some  people  regret  the  King  of  France's, 
Louis  XVI.,  being  beheaded.  13.  He  bought  a  hog's  head  of 
sugar.  14.  William's  and  Mary's  reign  was  prosperous,  15,  It 
was  John,  not  Emma's  fault. 


216.  APPOSITION. 

Rule  IV. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  limit  the 
meaning  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denoting  the  same 
person   or  thing,   is   in   the   same   case. 

Rem.  I. — A  noun  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  sentence,  and 
a  sentence  with  a  noun ;  as,  "/  resolved  to  practice  temperance — a 
resolution  I  have  ever  kept."  M  Remember  Franklin's  maxim : 
'God  helps  them  that  help  themselves.1  " 

Rem.  2. — A  noun  in  apposition  sometimes  precedes  the 
noun  it  identifies;  as,  "Child  of  the  Sun,  refulgent  Summer, 
comes." 

Rem.  3. — Though  a  noun  or  pronoun  usually  agrees  with 
the  noun  it  identifies,  in  number  and  gender,  it  is  not  necessary 
that  it  agree  with  it  in  any  thing  else  than  case;  as,  "My 
lunch — fried  oysters  and  crackers — was  soon  eaten." 

Rem,  4. — When  possessives  are  in  apposition,  the  sign  of 
possession  is  used  only  with  the  one  next  to  the  noun  limited 
by  the  entire  possessive  term;  as,  "Peter  the  Hermit's  elo- 
quence." 


196  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  5. — Sometimes  the  noun  in  apposition  is  separated 
from  the  limited  noun  by  as,  denoting  rank,  office,  or  capacity; 
as,  M  Mr.  Jones,  as  my  attorney,  sold  the  land ; "  "  My  son  sails 
as  supercargo."  Equivalent  terms  are  sometimes  introduced 
by  or;  as,  "The  puma,  or  American  lion,  is  found  in  South 
America." 

Rem.  6. — A  noun  or  pronoun  repeated  for  emphasis,  or  for 
the  purpose  of  arresting  and  fixing  the  attention,  is  frequently 
an  appositive;  as,  "There  was  another  tap  at  the  door  — a 
smart,  potential  tap ;  "  "  He,  he  alone,  can  do  this."  A  com- 
pound personal  pronoun  is  also  sometimes  in  apposition  with 
a  simple  personal  pronoun  which  precedes  it;  as,  "I,  myself, 
told  you  so." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected,  analyzed,  and  parsed: 

1.  Will  you  discard  me;  I  who  have  always  been  your 
friend  ?  2.  What  was  the  General ;  him  you  wished  to  see  ? 
3.  I  bought  it  of  Mrs.  Wilson;  she  who  keeps  the  milliner's 
shop.  4.  Ira  Jacobs,  him  who  you  punished,  was  not  to  be 
blamed.  5.  Whom  shall  we  praise? — They  who  do  their  duty. 
6.  My  watch  was  lost  near  Wilkins's,  the  blacksmith's. 

7.  They  are  the  lovely,  them  in  whom  unite 

Youth's  fleeting  charms,  with  virtue's  lovely  light. 


217.   NOMINATIVE   ABSOLUTE  CASE. 

Rule  V. — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  independently,  it 
In  the  nominative  absolute  case. 

Rem.  I. — For  the  five  forms  of  the  absolute  case,  see  Sec.  33. 

Rem.  2. — The  nominative  absolute  with  a  participle  is  gen- 
erally equivalent  to  an  adverbial  clause,  commencing  with  if, 
because,  since,  when,  or  while;  as,  "He  being  rich,  they  feared  his 
influence "  —  They  feared  his  influence  because  he  was  rich. 
"The  sun  being  risen,  we  pursued  our  journey"  =  When  the  sun 
had  risen,  we  pursued  our  journey. 


SYNTAX— EULES.  197 

Rem.  3. — In  mottoes  and  abbreviated  sayings,  and  frequently 
in  exclamations,  nouns  in  the  nominative  absolute  case  seem 
to  have  relation  to  something  understood ;  as,  "  Laird's  Bloom 
of  Youth "  =Use  Laird's  Bloom  of  Youth;  "Confidence"  (a 
motto)  =This  is  a  token  of  confidence;  "A  rat!  a  rat!"=7%er<? 
is  a  rat.  It  is  better,  however,  to  recognize  the  nominative 
absolute  case  as  a  distinct  use  of  a  noun,  than  to  destroy  the 
force  of  an  expression  by  supplying  an  awkward  ellipsis. 

EXERCISES. 

Examples  to  be  parsed': 

1.  Soldier,  rest!  thy  warfare  o'er.  2.  "Stop!  the  hat!"  he 
exclaims.  3.  Our  fathers,  where  are  they?  4.  My  being  a 
child  was  a  plea  for  my  admission.  5.  The  north  and  the 
south,  thou  hast  created  them.  6.  John,  James,  and  Henry, 
they  are  my  scholars.  7.  0  Nelly  Gray !  0  Nelly  Gray ! 
8.  "The  Moon  and  the  Stars — A  Fable."  9.  Problem  III. — 
To  construct  a  mean  proportional  between  two  given  lines 


218.   OBJECTIVE  CASE. 

Rule  VI. — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  in  the  act- 
ive voice,  or  of  its  participles,  is  in  the  objective  case. 

Rem.  I. — The  natural  order  of  arrangement  is,  subject — verb — 
object;  but  in  poetry,  or  when  it  is  made  emphatic,  the  object 
precedes  the  subject;  as,  "Myself  I  can  not  save;"  "Silver  and 
gold  have  I  none."  To  avoid  ambiguity,  the  natural  order 
should  be  observed  when  the  subject  and  object  are  both 
nouns.  Say,  "Alexander  conquered  Darius,"  not  "Alexander 
Darius  conquered."  A  relative  or  interrogative  pronoun  is 
placed  at  the  head  of  its  clause;  as,  "I  am  he  whom  you 
seek;"  "Whom  shall  I  invite?" 

Rem.  2. — The  object  may  be  a  participial  noun,  a  phrase, 
or  a  clause;  as,  "I  like  running  and  jumping  better  than  study- 
ing;" "He  hopes  to  succeed;"  "'Our  armies  swore  terribly  in 
Flanders,1  cried  my  Uncle  Toby." 


198  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  3. — A  phrase  beginning  with  a  noun  or  pronoun,  may 
be  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb;  as,  "I  want  books  to  read;'* 
"The  merchant  ordered  the  goods  to  be  shipped;1'  "  I  heard  the 
water  lapping  on  the  crag;"  "I  want  him  to  go."  In  such  cases, 
the  entire  phrase  is  the  object  of  the  verb;  but  it  is  best  to 
apply  the  first  paragraph  of  Remark  1,  page  182,  in  parsing 
the  noun  or  pronoun  beginning  the  phrase,  Rule  XVII  in 
parsing  the  infinitive,  and  Rule  XII  in  parsing  the  participle. 

Rem.  4. — Some  verbs  used  as  copulatives  in  the  passive 
voice,  have  two  objects,  one  representing  a  person  or  thing, 
the  other  a  thing;  as,  "They  made  him  their  leader;"  "They 
chose  him  chairman."  When  such  verbs  are  made  passive, 
either  object  may  be  taken  as  the  subject,  but  the  other,  if 
retained,  becomes  a  predicate-nominative.  If  the  thing  is 
made  nominative,  the  person  is  governed  by  a  preposition,  ex- 
pressed or  understood ;  if  the  person  is  made  nominative,  the 
thing  may  be  parsed  by  Rule  II. 

Rem.  5. — A  transitive  verb  may  have  several  objects  con- 
nected by  conjunctions;  as,  "He  owns  houses,  lands,  and  bank- 
stock." 

Rem.  6. — Participial  nouns  may  be  limited  by  objective  ele- 
ments; as,  "  Writing  notes  is  forbidden;"  "I  like  hunting  buffa- 
loes." 

EXERCISES. 

Examples  to  be  corrected: 

1.  Who  did  you  write  to?  2.  Please  let  him  and  I  sit  to- 
gether. 3,  I  do  not  know  who  to  trust.  4.  He  who  did  the 
mischief  you  should  punish,  not  I.  5,  I  saw  she  and  him  at 
the  concert  last  evening.     6.  And  me,  what  shall  I  do? 

7.  We  will  go  at  once,  him  and  me.  8.  Every  one  can 
master  a  grief  but  he  that  hath  it.  9.  He  was  presented  a 
gold  watch  by  his  employers.     10.  Who  are  you  looking  for? 

Examples  to  be  analyzed  and  parsed : 

1.  We  will  rear  new  homes.  2.  The  parting  words  shall 
pass  my  lips  no  more.  3.  I  said  that  at  sea  all  is  vacancy. 
4.  They  have  left  unstained  what  there  they  found.  5.  Bring 
forth  this  counterfeit  model.     6.  Mad  frenzy  fires  him  now. 


SYNTAX— KULES.  199 

7.  Reading  makes  a  full  man,  conference  a  ready  man,  and 
writing  an  exact  man. — Bacon.  8.  Thou  hast  left  no  son — 
but  thy  song  shall  preserve  thy  name.  9.  His  disciples  said, 
Who,  then,  can  be  saved?  10.  I  was  forbidden  the  premises. 
11.  They  were  debarred  the  privilege  of  walking  in  the  park. 

12.  "But  what  good  came  of  it  at  last?" 
Quoth  little  Peterkin. 
"Why,  that  I  can  not  tell,"  said  he; 
"But  'twas  a  famous  victory." — Southey. 


219.   OBJECTIVE   AFTER  PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule  VII. — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  in  the 
objective   case. 

Rem.  I. — A  preposition  usually  precedes  its  object;  but  in 
poetry  this  order  is  often  reversed ;  as,  "  From  crag  to  crag, 
the  rattling  peaks  among"  =  among  the  rattling  peaks;  "Come 
walk  with  me  the  jungle  through," 

Rem.  2. — Interrogative  pronouns  frequently  precede  the  prep- 
ositions which  govern  them;    as,  "What  are  you  laughing  atf" 

Such  expressions  as,  "  Whom  are  you  talking  to  ?  "  "  Which 
house  do  you  live  in?"  are  inelegant,  if  not  ungrammatical. 
The  proper  construction  is,  " To  whom  are  you  talking ? "  "In 
which  house  do  you  live?" 

Rem.  3. — Some  phrases  consist  of  a  preposition,  followed  by 
an  adjective  or  an  adverb;  as,  in  vain,  at  once,  in  secret,  from  be- 
low, on  high,  from  above,  till  now,  till  lately,  etc.  In  such  phrases, 
an  object  may  be  understood;  the  word  following  the  preposi- 
tion, parsed  as  an  adjective  or  adverb  used  as  a  noun;  or  the 
entire  expression  may  be  regarded  as  an  inseparable  phrase. 

Rem.  4. — A  preposition  should  never  be  placed  between  a 
verb  and  its  object;  as,  "He  does  not  want  for  any  thing." 
Say  "He  does  not  want  any  thing." 

Rem.  5. — A  noun  or  pronoun  which  is  the  object  of  two  or 
more  prepositions,  or  of  a  preposition  and  a  transitive  verb, 
should  be  placed  after  the  first  verb  or  preposition,  and  be 
represented  by  a  pronoun  following  each  of  the  others.  "  He 
came  into  and  passed  through  the  cars"  should  be,  "He  came 


200  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

into  the  cars,  and  passed  through  them."  "  He  first  called,  and 
then  sent  for,  the  sergeant"  should  be,  "He  first  called  the 
sergeant,  and  then  sent  for  him." 

EXERCISES. 

7b  6<?  corrected: 

1.  The  army  shall  not  want  for  supplies.  2.  "Which  school 
do  you  go  to?  3.  What  firm  are  you  agent  for?  4.  What 
country  are  you  a  native  of?  5.  I  will  not  permit  of  such 
conduct. 

6.  It  is  our  duty  to  assist  and  sympathize  with  those  in 
distress.  7.  The  convicts  are  hired  by  and  employed  for  the 
benefit  of  a  few  speculators.  8.  He  lives  in  and  came  from 
Pittsburgh. 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed : 

1.  We  cruised  about  for  several  hours  in  the  dense  fog. 
2.  He  has  a  touch  of  our  family.  3.  Here  rests  his  head  upon 
the  lap  of  earth.  4.  He  will  steal,  sir,  an  egg  out  of  a  cloister. 
5.  The  pile  sank  down  into  the  opening  earth. 

6.  The  ground  lifts  like  a  sea.  7.  The  clouds  are  driven 
about  in  the  sky,  like  squadrons  of  combatants  rushing  to  the 
conflict.  8.  In  vain  does  the  old  dragon  rage.  9.  I  had  sup- 
posed till  lately  that  you  were  my  friend.  10.  A  shoreless 
ocean  tumbled  round  the  globe.  11.  The  morning  broke  with- 
out a  sun. 

Rule  VIII. — Nouns  denoting  time,  distance,  measure, 
direction,  or  value,  after  verbs  and  adjectives,  are  in 
the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word. 

Rem.  I. — The  relations  between  nouns  and  verbs,  as  well  as 
those  between  nouns  and  adjectives,  are  usually  expressed  by 
prepositions.  Sometimes,  however,  these  relations  are  so  obvi- 
ous that  they  are  not  expressed,  but  implied.  An  implied  re- 
lation and  its  subsequent  term  form  an  adverbial  phrase,  the 
term  being  the  object  of  the  relation.  As  there  is  no  preposi- 
tion in  the  English  language  that  exactly  expresses  this  rela- 
tion, the  noun  is  said  to  be  in  the  objective  case  without 
a  governing  word. 


SYNTAX— KULES.  201 

Rem.  2. — A  preposition  is  frequently  omitted.  The  subse- 
quent term  is  not  then  in  the  objective  case  without  a  gov- 
erning word,   but  is   governed  by   a  preposition  understood. 

Ex.—"  Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co.,  No.  137  Walnut  Street,  Cin- 
cinnati, 0."=To  Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co.,  at  No.  137  Walnut 
Street,  in  Cincinnati,  in  Ohio.  "July  4,  1776 "  =On  the  4th  day  of 
July,  in  the  year  1776. 

Rem.  3. — Home  and  nouns  denoting  manner  are  frequently 
in  the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word ;  as,  "  We 
drove   home  in  a  storm;"    "They  marched  Indian-file" 

Rem.  4. — The  names  of  things,  following  the  passive  forms 
of  the  verbs  ask,  lend,  teach,  refuse,  provide,  and  some  others, 
are  in  the  objective  case  without  a  governing  word,  or  in 
the  objective  case  governed  by  a  preposition  understood;  as, 
"He  was  asked  a  question;"  "John  was  refused  admittance;'' 
"  I  was  taught  grammar." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed : 

1.  The  horse  ran  a  mile.  2.  I  do  not  care  a  straw.  3.  He 
is  worth  a  million  of  dollars.  4,  The  child  is  nine  years  old. 
5.  He  wore  his  coat  cloak-fashion.  6,  Spring  has  already  cov- 
ered thy  grave,  twelve  times,  with  flowers.  7.  The  ship  sailed 
four  knots  an  hour. 

8.  This  is  worth  remembering.  9.  The  tower  is  two  hun- 
dred and  fifty  feet  high.  10.  How  many  square  yards  of 
plastering  in  a  room  twenty- one  feet  long,  fifteen  feet  wide, 
and  ten  feet  high?  11.  The  poor,  dissipated  student  was  re- 
fused his  diploma. 

220.  PRONOUNS. 

Rule  IX. — Pronouns  must  agree  with  their  anteced- 
ents in  person,  gender,  and  number. 

Rem.  I. — The  person,  gender,  and  number  of  an  interroga- 
tive pronoun  are  indeterminate  when  no  answer  is  given  to 
the  question  in  which  it  is  found;  as,  "Who  owns  that  ves- 
sel?"     The  answer  may  be,  "Mr.    Gordon  owns  it,"   "Jones  & 


202  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Smith  own  it,"  "I  own  it,"  "He  and  I  own  it,"  or  "  You  your- 
self own  it."  The  interrogative,  however,  should  be  parsed 
as  being  in  the  third  person  and  singular  number,  because 
it  requires  the  verb  to  be  in  the  third  person  and  singular 
number.  Its  gender  is  indeterminate.  When  an  answer  is 
given,  or  when  one  can  be  inferred  from  well-known  facts, 
these  properties  are  determinate ;  as,  "  Who  owns  that  ves- 
sel?— I  own  it."  "Who"  is  the  first  person,  common  gen- 
der, singular  number,  agreeing  with  "I."  "Who  commanded 
the  allied  forces  at  the  battle  of  Waterloo  ? "  "  Who "  is 
in  the  third  person,  masculine  gender,  singular  number — the 
answer,   though   not  given,   being  well  known. 

Rem.  2. — There  being  no  pronoun  of  the  third  person  sin- 
gular used  in  common  for  either  sex,  the  masculine  forms, 
he,  his,  him,  are  used  in  its  place.  Do  not  say,  "Each  pupil 
should  learn  his  or  her  lesson:"  use  his  alone.  Say,  "Should 
any  one  desire  to  consult  me,  let  him  call  at  my  office,"  even 
though  the  invitation  be  intended  for  both  sexes.  Should 
the  gender  of  the  person  referred  to  be  known,  use  a  mas- 
culine or  feminine  pronoun,  as  the  case  requires. 

Rem.  3. — Things  personified  should  be  represented  as  mas- 
culine or  feminine  by  the  pronouns  referring  to  them;  as, 
"Night,  sable  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throne;"  " Grim-visaged 
War  hath  smoothed  his  wrinkled  front." 

Rem.  4. — A  pronoun  sometimes  precedes  its  antecedent; 
as,  "Thy  chosen  temple,  Lord,  how  fair!"  "Hark!  they  whis- 
per, angels  say." 

Rem.  5. — The  relative  pronoun  is  frequently  omitted;  as, 
"That  is  the  house  [which']  we  live  in;"  "This  is  the  book 
[which']  you  inquired  for." 

Rem.  6. — That,  as  a  relative,  should  generally  be  used  after 
a,  all,  every,  same,  and  very;  after  who,  used  interrogatively; 
after  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree;  and  when  both 
persons  and  things  are  referred  to. 

Ex. — "He  is  a  man  that  all  respect;"  "I  gave  him  all  tfuit  I 
had;"  "Is  this  the  same  book  that  I  lent  you?"  "It  is  the  very 
book  that  you  lent  me;"  "He  is  the  wisest  that  says  the  least;" 
"Who  that  has  once  heard  him  does  not  wish  to  hear  him  once 
again?"  "Here  are  the  persons  and  things  that  were  sent  for." 


SYNTAX— KULES.  203 

Rem.  7. — Unless  great  emphasis  is  required,  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun should  not  be  used  in  the  nominative  absolute  case  by 
pleonasm.  Say,  "The  horse  ran  away,"  not  "The  horse,  it  ran 
away;"  "Many  words  darken  speech,"  not  "Many  words,  they 
darken  speech." 

Rem.  8. — To  avoid  ambiguity,  a  relative  pronoun  should  be 
placed  as  near  as  possible  to  its  antecedent. 

Ex. — "A  purse  was  lost  in  the  street,  which  contained  a  large 
sum  of  money."  The  clause  introduced  by  "which,"  should  be 
placed  immediately  after  "  purse." 

Rem.  9. — A  pronoun  whose  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun 
conveying  the  idea  of  unity,  should  be  in  the  neuter  singular; 
one  whose  antecedent  is  a  collective  noun  conveying  the  idea 
of  plurality,  should  be  plural,  taking  the  gender  of  the  indi- 
viduals composing  the  collection. 

Rem.  10. — It  is  used  to  represent  (1)  a  noun  or  pronoun  in 
any  person,  in  either  number,  or  of  any  gender;  (2)  a  sentence, 
or  a  part  of  a  sentence;  or  (3)  it  may  be  used  to  represent  an 
indefinite  antecedent. 

Ex. — "It  is  I;  "  "It  was  land-warrants  that  1  purchased ;  "  "It  was 
Milton  who  wrote  Paradise  Lost;"  "You  have  wronged  me,  and  will 
repent  of  it;"  "It  snows;"  "We  roughed  it  in  the  woods." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected: 

1.  James,  he  has  been  whispering.  2.  Whom,  when  they 
had  washed,  they  laid  her  in  an  upper  chamber.  3,  The 
names  I  called  you,  I  am  now  sorry  for  them.  4.  If  any  one 
has  not  paid  their  fare,  let  them  call  at  the  captains  office. 
5.  Every  one  should  have  his  or  her  life  insured. 

6.  Every  one  should  have  their  lives  insured.  7.  That  book 
is  in  the  book-case,  which  contains  pictures.  8.  This  is  the 
dog  whom  my  father  bought.  9.  These  are  the  men  and  the 
guns  which  we  captured.  10.  That  is  the  same  pen  which  I 
sold  you.     11.  He  is  the  wisest  which  lives  the  most  nobly. 

12.  The  moon  took  its  station  still  higher.  13.  The  jury 
could  not  agree  in  its  verdict.  14.  The  news  came  of  defeat, 
but  no  one  believed  them.  15.  If  you  see  an  error  or  a  fault 
in  my  conduct,  remind  me  of  them. 


204  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 

To  be  parsed  : 

I.  The  hand  that  governs  in  April,  governed  in  January. 
2.  I  perish  by  this  people  which  I  made.  3.  Many  a  man 
shall  envy  him  who  henceforth  limps.  4.  I  venerate  the 
man  whose  heart  is  warm.  5.  Your  sorrows  are  our  gladness. 
6.  The  blooming  morning  oped  her  dewy  eyes. 

7.  Men  are  like  birds  that  build  their  nests  in  trees  that 
hang  over  rivers.  8.  He  was  followed  by  another  worthless 
rogue,  who  flung  away  his  modesty  instead  of  his  ignorance. 
9.  A  bird  is  placed  in  a  bell-glass,  A,  which  stands  over 
the  mercury. 

10.  Eemorseless  Timel 

Fierce  spirit  of  the  glass  and  scythe !     What  power 
Can  stay  him  in  his  silent  course,  or  melt 
His  iron  heart  to  pity? — Prentice. 

II.  "Banished  from  Rome!"  what's  banished,  but  set  free 
From  daily  contact  of  the  things  I  loathe? 

"Tried  and  convicted  traitor!"     Who  says  this? 
Who'll  prove  it,  at  his  peril,  on  my  head? — Oroly. 


221.  ANTECEDENTS  CONNECTED  BY  "AND." 

Rule  X. — A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  antecedents 
in  the  singular,  connected  by  and,  must  be  plural. 

Rem.  I. — When  the  antecedents  are  but  different  names  for 
the  same  person  or  thing,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular;  as, 
"The  eminent  lawyer  and  statesman  has  resigned  his  office." 

Rem.  2. — When  the  antecedents  are  emphatically  distin- 
guished, the  pronoun  should  be  singular;  as,  "The  mind  as 
well  as  the  body  has  its  diseases;"  "The  country  and  not  the 
government  has  its  admirers." 

Rem.  3. — When  the  antecedents  are  limited  by  each,  every,  or 
no,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular;  as,  "Each  man  and  each  boy 
did  his  duty;"  "Every  hill  and  every  mountain  has  its  echo;" 
"There  is  no  day  and  no  hour  without  its  cares." 


SYNTAX— RULES.  205 

Rem.  4. — When  the  antecedents  taken  together  are  re- 
garded as  a  single  thing,  the  pronoun  must  be  singular;  as, 
"The  horse  and  wagon  is  in  its  place." 


EXERCISES. 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed : 

1.  Charles  and  Henry  are  flying  their  kites.  2.  You  and  I 
should  study  our  lessons.  3.  The  child  wants  some  bread  and 
milk:  will  you  get  it?  4.  The  good  man,  and  the  sinner,  too, 
shall  have  his  reward.  5.  The  great  philosopher  and  states- 
man is  laid  in  his  grave.  6.  He  bought  a  horse  and  a  wagon, 
and  sold  them  at  a  profit.  7.  Every  house  and  lot  has  its 
price  set  opposite  its  number. 


222.  ANTECEDENTS  CONNECTED  BY  "OR" 
OR  "NOR." 

Rule  XI. — A  pronoun,  with  two  or  more  anteced- 
ents in  'the  singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be 
singular. 

Rem.  I. — "When  the  two  antecedents  are  of  different  genders, 
the  use  of  a  singular  masculine  pronoun  to  represent  them  is 
improper.     In  such  cases: 

1.  Use  a  plural  pronoun  that  may  represent  both  genders; 
as,  "Not  on  outward  charms  could  he  or  she  build  their  pre- 
tensions to  please." 

2.  Use  different  pronouns;  as,  "No  boy  or  girl  should  whis- 
per to  his  or  her  neighbor." 

3.  Substitute  a  general  term,  including  both,  for  the  two 
antecedents,  and  represent  this  general  term  by  a  singular 
masculine  pronoun;  as,  "No  pupil  (boy  or  girl)  should  whis- 
per to  his  neighbor." 

Rem.  2. — When  one  of  the  antecedents  is  plural,  it  should 
be  placed  last,  and  the  pronoun  should  be  plural;  as,  '*  Neither 
the  farmer  nor  his  sons  were  aware  of  their  danger." 


206  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

EXERCISES, 

To  be  corrected: 

1.  No  father  or  mother  lives  that  does  not  love  his  or 
her  children.  2.  George  or  Charles  are  diligent  in  their  busi- 
ness. 3.  If  an  Aristotle,  a  Pythagoras,  or  a  Galileo  suffer 
for  their  opinions,  they  are  martyrs.  4.  If  you  see  my  son 
or  my  daughter,  send  them  home.  5.  Poverty  or  wealth 
have  their  own  temptations. 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed : 

1.  Henry  or  Samuel  will  lend  you  his  book.  2.  If  thy 
hand  or  thy  foot  offend  thee,  cut  it  off,  and  cast  it  from 
thee.  3.  Neither  James  nor  John  has  gained  much  credit 
for  himself. 

4.  Either  Mary  or  Sarah  will  recite  her  lesson.  5.  Even  a 
rugged  rock,  or  a  barren  heath,  though  in  itself  disagreeable, 
contributes  by  contrast  to  the  beauty  of  the  whole. 

6.  Either  James  or  his  father  was  mistaken  in  his  opinion. 
7.  Neither  the  teacher  nor  the  scholars  used  their  books  in 
the  class. 


223.   ADJECTIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

Rule  XII. — An  adjective  or  a  participle  belongs  to 
some  noun  "or  pronoun. 

Rem.  I. — An  adjective  used  as  the  predicate  of  a  sentence, 
may  modify  an  infinitive  or  a  substantive  clause,  used  as  the 
subject;  as,  "To  lie  is  sinful;"  "That  all  men  are  created  equal, 

is  self-evident." 

Rem.  2. — After  infinitives  and  participles,  adjectives  are  fre- 
quently used  which  do  not  belong  to  any  particular  noun  or 
pronoun;  as,  "To  be  good  is  to  be  happy;"  "The  main  secret 
of  being  sublime,  is  to  say  great  things  in  few  and  plain  words." 
In  parsing,  say  that  they  modify  some  noun  or  pronoun  not 
expressed. 

Rem.  3. — An  adjective  should  agree  in  number  with  the 
noun  to  which  it  belongs;  as,  that  kind,  those  kinds;  one  man, 


SYNTAX-BULES.  207 

two  men.  To  denote  a  collective  number,  a  singular  adjective 
may  precede  a  plural  noun ;  as,  "  One  thousand  dollars ; " 
"  The  census  is  taken  every  ten  years."  To  denote  plurality, 
many  a  is  used  instead  of  many ;  as,  "Many  a  time;  "  "Many  a 
morning." 

Rem.  4. — In  poetry,  an  adjective  relating  to  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun is  sometimes  used  instead  of  an  adverb  modifying  a  verb 
or  a  participle;  as,  "Incessant  still  you  flow;"  "Swift  on  his 
downy  pinions  flies  from  woe." 

Rem.  5. — Adjectives  are  sometimes  used  as  nouns;  as,  "The 
rich  and  the  poor  here  meet  together;"  "One  said,  'Let  us  go;' 
another,  '  No,  let  us  remain.'  " 

Rem.  6. —  Two  adjectives  are  frequently  connected  by  a 
hyphen,  forming  a  compound  adjective;  as,  "A  sweet-faced  girl." 

Rem.  7. — Numeral  and  pronominal  adjectives  precede  an- 
other adjective  which  modifies  the  same  noun;  as,  "The  seven 
wise  men;"    "That  old  house." 


EXERCISES. 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed: 

I.  His  spirit  was  so  bird-like  and  so  pure.  2.  Dim,  cheer- 
less, is  the  scene  my  path  around.  3.  This  life  of  ours  is 
a  wild  iEolian  harp  of  many  a  joyous  strain.  4.  Every  tree- 
top  has  its  shadow, 

5.  "With  fleecy  clouds  the  sky  is  blanched.  6.  Still  stands 
the  forest  primeval.  7.  'Tis  impious  in  a  good  man  to  be 
sad.  8.  To  hope  the  best  is  pious,  brave,  and  wise.  9.  Time 
wasted  is  existence;   used,  is  life. 

10.  Thoughts  shut  up,  want  air, 

And  spoil,  like  bales  unopened  to  the  sun. —  Young. 

II.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers, 

Life  is  but  an  empty  dream.—  Longfellow. 

12.  Pray  for  the  living,  in  whose  breast 
The  struggle  between  right  and  wrong 
Is  raging  terrible  and  strong. 


208  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

13.  Petulant  she  spoke,  and  at  herself  she  laughed; 
A  rose-bud  set  with  little  willful  thorns, 

And  sweet  as  English  air  could  make  her. 

14.  The  hills  are  dearest  which  our  childish  feet 

Have  climbed  the  earliest,  and  the  streams  most  sweet 
Are  ever  those  at  which  our  young  lips  drank — 
Stoop'd  to  their  waters  o'er  the  grassy  bank. 

15.  Sometimes  her  narrow  kitchen  walls 
Stretched  away  into  stately  halls. —  Whittier, 


224.  VERBS. 

Rule  XIII. — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in 
person   and   number. 

Rem.  I. — When  the  subject  is  a  collective  noun,  conveying 
plurality  of  idea,  the  verb  should  be  plural;  as,  "In  France  the 
peasantry  go  barefooted,  while  the  middle  class  wear  wooden 
shoes." 

Rem.  2. — When  a  subject,  plural  in  form,  represents  a  single 
thing,  the  verb  must  be  singular;  as,  "The  'Pleasures  of  Memory1 
was  published  in  1792;"  "Politics  is  his  trade;"  'The  news  is 
confirmed." 

Rem.  3. — When  the  subject  is  a  mere  word  or  sign,  an  infin- 
itive, or  a  substantive  clause,  the  verb  should  be  in  the  third 
person  singular;  as,  "They  is  a  personal  pronoun;"  ''  +  is  the 
sign  of  addition;"  "To  deceive  is  wrong;"  "'Who  comes  there  f 
was  heard  from  within." 

Rem.  4. — A  verb  in  the  imperative  mode  usually  agrees  with 
thou,  you,  or  ye,  expressed  or  understood;  as,  "Look  [ye]  to  your 
hearths,  my  lord ! "  "Smooth  [thou]  thy  brow ; "  "  [Do  thou]  let 
brighter  thoughts  be  with  the  virtuous  dead." — Hemans. 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected: 

1.  You  and  I  was  walking  together.  2.  The  horses  has 
been  fed.  3.  I  called,  but  you  was  not  at  home.  4.  Thou  can 
assist  me  if  thou  will.  5.  There  was  mountains  where  I  came 
from.  6.  A  committee  were  appointed  to  report  resolutions. 
7.  The  fleet  were  seen  off  Hatteras. 


SYNTAX— KULES.  209 

8.  The  legislature  have  adjourned.  9.  The  corporation  is 
individually  responsible.  10.  The  Pleasures  of  Hope  are  a 
fine  poem.  11.  The  scissors  is  dull.  12.  We  are  a  personal 
pronoun.  13.  The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain. 
14.  The  board  of  trustees  have  a  meeting  to-night. 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed : 

1.  Thus  many  a  sad  to-morrow  came  and  went.  2.  Return, 
0  beautiful  days  of  youth !  3.  I  alone  was  solitary  and  idle. 
4.  This  well  deserves  meditating.  5.  At  an  early  hour,  arrive 
the  diligences.     6.  He  waved  his  arm. 

7.  Every  rational  creature  has  all  nature  for  his  dowry  and 
estate.  8.  The  present  needs  us.  9.  The  jury  were  not  unan- 
imous. 10.  Generation  after  generation  passes  away.  11.  The 
public  are  respectfully  invited  to  attend. 

12.  Every  age 
Bequeaths  the  next  for  heritage, 
No  lazy  luxury  or  delight. 

13.  There's  not  a  beggar  in  the  street 

Makes  such  a  sorry  sight. 

14.  He  that  attends  to  his  interior  self, 

That  has  a  heart,  and  keeps  it — has  a  mind 
That  hungers  and  supplies  it,  and  who  seeks 
A  social,  not  a  dissipated  life, 
Has  business. 

15.  Between  Nose  and  Eyes  a  strange  contest  arose. 

The  spectacles  set  them  unhappily  wrong; 
The  point  in  dispute  was,  as  all  the  world  knows, 

To  which  the  said  spectacles  ought  to  belong. — Oowper. 


225.  SUBJECTS   CONNECTED  BY  "AND." 

Rule  XIV. — A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in  the 
singular,  connected  by  and;  must  be  plural. 

Rem.  I. — When  two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular,  con- 
nected by  and,  are  but  different  names  for  the  same  person  or 
thing,  or,  when  taken  together,  they  represent  a  single  idea, 
the  verb  should  be  singular;  as,  "Descent  and  fall  to  us  is  ad- 
verse;" "A  hue  and  cry  was  raised." 
H  a.— 14. 


210  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Rem.  2. — When  two  or  more  singular  subjects  are  emphat- 
ically distinguished,  or  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  or  no,  the 
verb  should  be  singular;  as,  "The  father,  as  well  as  the  son, 
was  in  fault;"  "All  work  and  no  play  makes  Jack  a  dull  boy;" 
''Every  bird  and  beast  cowers  before  the  wild  blast." 

Rem.  3. — When  two  or  more  subjects,  of  different  numbers, 
are  emphatically  distinguished,  the  verb  agrees  with  the  first; 
as,  "  Diligent  industry,  and  not  mean  savings,  constitutes  honor- 
able competence." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected: 

m  1.  Mr.  Johnson  and  his  brother  was  at  the  meeting 
2.  Time  and  tide  waits  for  no  man.  3.  Bread  and  milk  are 
good  food.  4.  Each  man,  each  child,  and  each  woman  know 
the  hour.  5.  The  boy's  mother,  but  not  his  father,  deserve 
great  praise. 

6.  Patience  and  diligence  removes  mountains.  7.  Neither 
of  them  are  remarkable  for  precision.  8.  The  salmon,  as  well 
as  the  trout,  have  become  scarce  in  these  waters.  9.  A  num- 
ber of  horses,  together  with  a  large  amount  of  other  property, 
were  stolen  last  night. 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed: 

1.  Her  beauty,  and  not  her  talents,  attracts  attention. 
2.  No  wife  and  no  mother  was  there  to  comfort  him.  3.  Out 
of  the  same  mouth  proceed  blessing  and  cursing.  4.  You  and 
I  look  alike. 

5.  My  uncle,  with  his  wife,  is  in  town.  6.  Charles  and 
Emma  are  good  scholars.  7.  Charles,  together  with  his  sister 
Emma,  is  studying  botany.  8.  The  crime,  not  the  scaffold, 
makes  the  shame.  9.  The  ambition  and  avarice  of  man  are 
the  sources  of  his  unhappiness. 

10.  Fire  of  imagination,  strength  of  mind,  and  firmness  of 
soul  are  gifts  of  nature.  11.  Each  battle  sees  the  other's 
umbered  face.  12.  A  coach  and  six  is,  in  our  time,  never 
seen,  except  as  a  part  of  some  pageant. — Macaulay. 

13.  A  day,  an  hour  of  virtuous  liberty, 

Is  worth  a  whole  eternity  of  bondage. — Addison. 


SYNTAX— RULES.  211 


226.   SUBJECTS   CONNECTED   BY   "OR"   OR 
"NOR." 


Rule  XV. — A  verb,  with  two  or  more  subjects  in  the 
singular,  connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  be  singular. 

Rem.  I. — When  the  subjects  are  of  different  persons  or  num- 
bers, the  verb  must  agree  with  the  nearest,  unless  another  be 
the  principal  term;  as,  "Neither  you  nor  I  am  to  blame;" 
"Neither  you  nor  he  is  in  his  place." 

Rem.  2. — When  two  or  more  infinitives,  or  substantive 
clauses,  are  connected  by  or  or  nor,  the  verb  must  be  singular, 
and  a  predicate  nominative,  following  the  verb,  must  be  sin- 
gular also ;  as,  "  Why  we  are  thus  detained,  or  why  we  re- 
ceive no  intelligence  from  home,  is  mysterious;"  "To  be,  or 
not  to  be,  that  is  the  question." 

Rem.  3. — When  the  subjects  are  singular,  but  of  different 
genders,  the  verb  is  singular,  relating  to  them  taken  sepa- 
rately; but  a  pronoun  may  be  plural,  relating  to  them  taken 
conjointly;  as,  "Mary  or  her  sister  has  lost  their  umbrella" — 
the  umbrella  being  theirs  by  joint  ownership. 

i 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected: 

I.  Has  the  horses  or  the  cattle  been  found?  2.  Were  the 
boy  or  the  girl  badly  bruised  ?  3.  The  ax  or  the  hammer  were 
lost.  4.  Poverty  or  misfortune  have  been  his  lot.  5.  Neither 
the  horse  nor  the  wagon  are  worth  much.  6.  Either  you  or  I 
are  to  blame.  7.  Neither  the  mule  nor  the  horses  is  found. 
8.  He  comes — nor  want  nor  cold  his  course  delay.  9.  Neither 
avarice  nor  pleasure  move  me.  10.  A  lucky  anecdote,  or  an 
enlivening  tale,  relieve  the  folio  page. 

II.  Not  the  Mogul,  or  Czar  of  Muscovy, 
Not  Prester  John,  or  Cham  of  Tartary, 
Are  in  their  houses  monarchs  more  than  I. 


212  ENGLISH  GEAMMAB. 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed . 

I.  To  give  an  affront,  or  to  take  one  tamely,  is  no  mark 
of  a  great  mind.  2.  Neither  he  nor  she  has  spoken  to  him. 
3.  To  reveal  secrets,  or  to  betray  one's  friends,  is  contempti- 
ble perfidy.     4.  Either  ability  or  inclination  was  wanting. 

5.  Hatred  or  revenge  deserves  censure.  6.  Neither  poverty 
nor  riches  is  desirable.  7.  The  vanity,  the  ambition,  or  the 
pride  of  some  men  keeps  them  always  in  trouble.  8.  Emma 
or  Jane  has  lost  her  dictionary. 

9.  The  breezy  call  of  incense-breathing  morn, 

The  swallow  twittering  from  the  straw-built  shed, 
The  cock's  shrill  clarion,  or  the  echoing  horn, 
No  more  shall  rouse  them  from  their  lowly  bed. — Gray, 

10.  From  the  high  host 

Of  stars  to  the  lulled  lake,  and  mountain  coast, 

All  is  concentered  in  a  life  intense, 
Where  not  a  beam,  nor  air,  nor  leaf  is  lost. — Byron. 

II.  Time,  nor  Eternity,  hath  seen 

A  repetition  of  delight 
In  all  its  phases;  ne'er  hath  been 
For  men  or  angels  that  which  if. 


227.  INFINITIVES. 

Rule  XVI. — An  infinitive  may  be  used  as  a  noun  in 
any  case  except  the  possessive. 

Rem.  I. — An  infinitive  represents  being,  action,  or  state  ab- 
stractly. It  is  the  mere  verb,  without  limitation.  As  such,  it 
may  be  used: 

1.  As  the  subject  of  a  proposition;    as,  "To  err  is  human." 

2.  As  the  predicate  of  a  propositidn;  as,  "To  obey  is  to  enjoy" 

3.  As  the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  or  of  its  participles ; 
as,  "He  loves  to  play;"    "He  is  trying  to  learn." 

4.  In  apposition  with  a  noun;  as,  "Delightful  task,  to  rear  the 
tender  thought." 


SYNTAX— KULES.  213 

5.  Abstractly,  or  independently ;  as,  "To  tell  the  truth,  I  was 
inattentive." 

Rem.  2. — The  infinitive  always  retains  its  verbal  significa- 
tion. Hence,  as  a  noun,  it  may  be  limited  by  a  predicate  ad- 
jective or  predicate  nominative,  and,  as  a  verb,  be  followed  by 
an  object,  or  modified  by  an  adverb;  as,  "To  spend  money 
recklessly  is  criminal." 

Rem.  3. — The  sign  to  should  never  be  separated  from  the 
rest  of  the  infinitive.  "To  correctly  report  a  speech  is  difficult," 
should  be  "To  report  a  speech  correctly  is  difficult." 

Rem.  4. — The  preposition  for  should  not  be  used  immedi- 
ately before  the  infinitive.  "  I  study  for  to  learn,"  should  be 
"I  study  to  learn" 

Rem.  5. — The  sign  to  should  never  be  used  alone.  "  I  never 
told  a  lie,  and  never  intend  to,"  should  be  "  I  never  told  a  lie, 
and  never  intend  to  do  so." 

Rem.  6. — After  the  verbs  bid,  dare  (venture),  hear,  feel,  let, 
make,  need,  see,  in  the  active  voice,  and  let  in  the  passive,  the 
sign  to  is  generally  omitted;  as,  "He  bade  him  depart;"  "I  saw 
him  fall."  The  sign  to  is  sometimes  omitted  after  several 
other  verbs. 

Rem.  7. — Verbs  expressing  hope,  expectation,  command,  intention, 
etc.,  require  the  present  infinitive  after  them;  as,  "I  hoped  to 
see  you;"  "I  intended  to  call  for  you;"  "He  expected  to  sec  you 
yesterday." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected: 

1.  What  came  ye  out  for  to  see?  2.  I  never  voted  that 
aicket,  and  never  intend  to.  3.  To  greedily  eat  one's  dinner 
is  ill-mannered.  4.  I  dared  him  come  to  me.  5.  He  durst  not 
to  leave  his  room.     6.  I  saw  him  to  write  on  his  slate. 

7.  I  have  known  him  to  frequently  be  tardy.  8.  He  made 
his  horses  td  go  very  fast.  9.  He  needs  study  more  carefully. 
10.  He  need  not  to  remain  long,  11.  He  intended  to  have 
written  to  you.  12.  They  had  hoped  to  have  seen  you  before 
they  left. 


214  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

To  be  analyzed  and  parsed : 

1.  To  do  right,  is  to  do  that  wnich  is  ordered  to  be  done. 
2.  To  die  is  to  be  banished  from  myself.  3.  To  do  justice 
and  judgment  is  more  acceptable  to  the  Lord  than  sacrifice. 

4.  It  is  our  duty  to  try,  and  our  determination  to  succeed. 

5.  He  had  dared  to  think  for  himself. 

6.  It  is  the  curse  of  kings  to  be  attended 

By  slaves  that  take  their  humors  for  a  warrant 
To  break  within  the  bloody  house  of  life, 
And  on  the  winking  of  authority, 
To  understand  a  law. — Shakespeare. 

7.  Have  ye  brave  sons  ?    Look  in  the  next  fierce  brawl 
To  see  them  die.     Have  ye  fair  daughters  ?     Look 
To  see  them  live,  torn  from  your  arms,  distained, 
Dishonored,  and  if  ye  dare  call  for  justice, 

Be  answered  by  the  lash. — Mitford. 


228.   INFINITIVES  NOT  USED  AS  NOUNS. 

Rule  XVII. — An  infinitive  not  used  as  a  noun,  de- 
pends upon  the  word   it  limits. 

Rem.  I. — An  infinitive  may  depend  upon: 

1.  A  noun;  as,  "Flee  from  the  wrath  to  come." 

2.  A  pronoun;  as,  "I  heard  him  declaim." 

3.  A  verb;  as,  "He  went  to  see  the  show." 

4.  An  adjective;  as,  "The  gods  are  hard  to  reconcile." 

5.  A  participle;  as,   'The  rain  threatening  to  fall,  we  left." 

6.  An  adverb ;  as,  "  He  told  me  when  to  come." 

Rem.  2. — The  sign  to  is  sometimes  improperly  omitted;  as, 
"Please  excuse  James  for  absence."     Supply  to  before  "excuse." 

Rem.  3.— The  infinitive  is  often  understood;  as,  "I  consid- 
ered him  [to  be~\  honest." 

Rem.  4. — The  sign  to  may  be  omitted  before  all  but  the  first 
of  two  or  more  infinitives  in  the  same  construction;  as,  "They 
tried  to  cheat,  rob,  and  murder  me." 


SYNTAX-RULES.  215 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  parsed: 

I.  I  come  not  here  to  talk.  2.  I  can  not  see  to  spin  my 
flax.  3.  In  sooth,  deceit  maketh  no  mortal  gay.  4  I  saw 
along  the  winter  snow  a  spectral  column  pour.  5.  Let  the 
great  world  spin  forever  down  the  ringing  grooves  of  change. 

6.  He  lived  to  die,  and  died  to  live.  7.  It  is  a  brave  thing 
to  understand  something  of  what  we  see.  8.  It  is  better  to 
fight  for  the  good  than  to  rail  at  the  ill. 

9,  Let  us  be  content  in  work, 

To  do  the  thing  we  can,  and  not  presume 
To  fret  because  it's  little. 

10.  One  day  with  life  and  heart, 

Is  more  than  time  enough  to  find  a  world. 

II.  Needful  auxiliars  are  our  friends,  to  give 
To  social  man  true  relish  of  himself. 

12.  Learn  well  to  know  how  much  need  not  be  known, 
And  what  that  knowledge  which  impairs  your  sense. 

13.  Let  him  not  violate  kind  nature  s  laws, 
But  own  man  born  to  live  as  well  as  die. 

14.  The  blood  more  stirs 
To  rouse  a  lion  than  to  start  a  hare. 

15.  He  that  lacks  time  to  mourn,  lacks  time  to  mend. 
Eternity  mourns  that. — Henry  Taylor. 


229.   ADVERBS. 

Rule  XVIII. — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  par- 
ticiples, and  adverbs. 

Rem.  I. — Adverbs  sometimes  modify  phrases  and  entire  prop- 
ositions; as,  "He  lives  just  over  the  hill;"  "Verily,  ye  are  the 
people." 

Rem.  2. — Adverbs  are  frequently  used  as  expletives ;  as, 
"Well,  that  is  a  strange  story ;"  "There,  now,  you  have  said 
enough." 


216  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 

Rem.  3.— The  adverbs  yes,  no,  aye,  yea,  and  nay.  are  generally 
answers  to  questions,  and  are  equivalent  to  a  whole  sentence. 
They  are  then  used  independently,  or  modify  the  sentences 
preceding  or  following  them. 

Ex. — "Are  you  angry?— No"  "Yea,  they  shall  sing  in  the  ways 
of  the  Lord  ; "  "Nay;  but  it  is  really  true." 

Rem.  4. — Two  contradictory  negatives  in  the  same  clause 
are  equivalent  to  an  affirmative;  as,  "I  can  not  write  no  more" 
=  1  can  write  more.  Hence,  two  negatives  should  never  be 
employed  to  express  a  negation.  Say,  "I  want  no  assistance," 
not,  "I  dorit  want  no  assistance."  Two  or  more  negatives, 
not  contradictory,  do  not  destroy  the  negative  character  of 
a  sentence;  as,  "He  will  never  consent,  no,  never,  not  he,  nor  1 
neither." 

Rem.  5. — When  the  quality  of  an  object,  and  not  the  man 
ner  of  an  action,  is  to  be  expressed,  an  adjective  should  b^ 
used  as  predicate;  as,  "He  arrived  safe"  not  "safely;"   "She. 
looks  beautiful,"  not  "beautifully." 

Rem.  6. — Though  sanctioned  by  good  authority,  t*he  use  of 
from  before  whence,  hence,  and  thence  should  be  avoided.  Say, 
"Whence  came  you?"  not  "From  whence  came  you." 

Rem.  7. — The  word  modified  by  an  adverb  is  sometimes 
omitted;  as,  "Down,  royal  state!  '  Supply  "fall."  "Up  in 
the  morning  early."  Supply  "get"  or  "rise."  "I'll  hence  to 
London."  Supply  "go."  In  some  cases,  adverbs  thus  used 
seem  to  have  the  force  of  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode,  but 
not  always.  Up  and  out,  followed  by  the  preposition  with,  take 
the  place  of  verbs  in  declarative  sentences;  as,  "She  up  with 
her  fist,  and  took  him  on  the  face." 

Rem.  8. —  There  is  frequently  used  as  an  expletive  to  intro- 
duce a  sentence;  as,  "There  was  no  grass  there;"  "There  were 
three  of  us." 

Rem.  9. — An  adverbial  phrase  should  not  be  parsed  as  a 
single  word  when  its  parts  can  be  parsed  separately;  as,  "They 
walked  hand  in  hand."     Place  "with"  before  the  phrase. 

Rem.  10. — The  comparative  and  superlative  forms  of  adjec- 
tives, preceded  by  the  definite  article,  are  often  used  as  ad- 
verbs;   as,  "The  longer  I  study,  the  better  I  like  it;"    "He  lives 


SYNTAX— KULES.  217 

best  who  acts   the  noblest."     The  articles  in  these  expressions 
are  used  adverbially. 

Rem.  II. — Adverbs  should  be  so  placed  as  to  render  the 
sentence  clear,  correct,  and  elegant.  The  sense  intended  to 
be  conveyed  depends  upon  their  position.  Compare  "He  is 
thought  to  be  generally  honest,"  with  "  He  is  generally  thought 
to  be  honest." 

EXERCISES. 

To  be  corrected: 

1.  He  won't  give  me  no  satisfaction.  2.  "We  didn't  find  no- 
body at  home.  3.  Nobody  never  saw  such  a  crowd  of  people. 
4.  The  nation  never  was  more  prosperous,  nor  never  was  more 
ungrateful.  5.  The  velvet  feels  smoothly.  6.  He  speaks  slow 
and  distinct.  7.  The  children  all  looked  beautifully.  8.  You 
did  splendid  last  examination.  9.  I  am  tolerable  well,  I  thank 
you.     10.  I  scarce  know  what  I  am  saying. 

11.  He  did  handsomer  than  he  promised.  12.  He  out  with 
his  knife,  and  slashed  right  and  left  {See  Rem.  7).  13.  I  only 
want  to  borrow  your  umbrella.  14.  The  dog  wanted  in,  but 
he  now  wants  out.  15.  It  rains  most  every  day.  16.  I  would 
not  have  believed  no  tongue  but  Hubert's.  17.  They  said  that 
he  was  generally  cheerful.  18.  Our  dog  is  very  good-natured 
usually.     19.  Sometimes  are  you  despondent? 


To  be  analyzed  and  parsed : 

1.  All  the  world  was  ours  once  more.  2.  Therein  the  pa- 
tient must  minister  to  himself. — Shakespeare.  3.  I  saw  the 
blue  Khine  sweep  along.  4.  Death  erects  his  batteries  right 
over  against  our  homes.  5.  Slowly  the  throng  moves  o'er  the 
tomb-paved  ground.  6.  The  complication  of  a  town  is  often 
happily  unraveled  by  starting  from  a  main  trunk. 

7.  Man  desires  not  only  to  be  loved,  but  to  be  lovely. 
8.  Westward  the  course  of  empire  takes  its  way.  9.  Your 
menaces  move  me  not.  10.  We  see  but  dimly  through  the 
mists  and  vapors.  11.  Man  by  man,  and  foot  by  foot,  did 
the  soldiers  proceed  over  the  Alps.  12.  Finally,  the  war  is 
already  begun,  and  we  must  either  conquer  or  perish.  13.  He 
heaped  up  great  riches,  but  passed  his  time  miserably. 


218  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

14.  Night'3  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  Day- 
Stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain's  top. — Shakespeare. 

15.  I'll  look  no  more, — 

Lest  my  brain  turn,  and  the  deficient  sight 
Topple  down  headlong. 

16.  Not  a  word  to  each  other;  we  kept  the  great  pace — 
Neck  by  neck,  stride  by  stride,  never  changing  our  place 

Browning 

17.  Their  breath  is  agitation,  and  their  life 

A  storm  whereon  they  ride  to  sink  at  last. — Byron. 

18.  Who  does  the  best  his  circumstance  allows, 
Does  well,  acts  nobly,  angels  could  no  more. 
Our  outward  act  indeed  admits  restraint; 
'T  is  not  in  things  o'er  thought  to  domineer. 
Guard  well  thy  thought,  our  thoughts  are  heard  in 

heaven. — Young. 


230.   PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule  XIX. — A  preposition  shows  the  relation  of  its 
object  to  the  word  upon  which  the  latter  depends. 

Rem.  I. — The  object  of  a  preposition,  as  well  as  the  precede 
ing  term  of  relation,  often  determines  what  preposition  should 
be  used;  as,  "He  read  to  me  about  the  war,  with  much  feeling;" 
"  lie  wrote  to  me  in  great  haste  concerning  his  losses." 

EXERCISES. 

To   he   corrected  and  parsed: 

1.  The  man  is  dependent  on  his  relatives.  2.  I  differ  with 
you  on  that  point.  3.  The  man  was  killed  by  a  sword,  and 
died  with  violence.  4.  The  two  thieves  divided  the  money 
among  them.  5.  During  his  life-time,  he  was  twice  ship- 
wrecked. 

6.  *Above  the  clouds  and  tempests'  rage, 
Across  yon  blue  and  radiant  arch,  * 
Upon  their  long,  high  pilgrimage, 

I  watched  their  glittering  armies  march. 


SYNTAX— RULES.  219 


231.   COORDINATE    CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule  XX. — Coordinate  conjunctions  join  similar  ele- 
ments. 

Rem.  I. — Elements  placed  in  the  same  relation  or  rank  are 
similar;  as,  nouns  or  pronouns  in  the  same  case,  verbs  in  the 
same  construction,  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  limiting  the 
same  term,  etc. 

Rem.  2. — Conjunctions  are  sometimes  omitted;  as,  "  Had  1 
the  means,  I  would  buy  that  farm  "  =  If  I  had  the  means,  etc. 
"He  is  rich,  noble,  wise,  [and~\   generous." 

Rem.  3. — In  a  series  of  similar  terms,  the  conjunction  is 
usually  omitted,  except  between  the  last  two;  as,  "Henry, 
Horace,  and  Samuel  are  my  pupils."  When  great  emphasis  is 
required,  the  conjunction  should  be  supplied;  as,  "You  have 
been  an  honest,  and  a  bold,  and  a  faithful  hound." 

Rem.  4. — Dissimilar  or  disproportionate  terms  should  never 
be  joined  by  conjunctions;  as,  "I  always  have  [been]  and 
always  shall  be  of  this  opinion." 

Rem.  5. — Conjunctions  are  sometimes  used  as  introductory 
words,  either  to  awaken  expectation,  or  to  make  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  sentence  less  abrupt;  as,  "And  it  came  to  pass  in 
those  days,"  etc.  \  "So  you  are  going  to  New  Orleans,  it  seems." 

EXERCISES. 

To    be   corrected  and  parsed: 

1.  "We  moved  along  silently  and  with  caution.  2.  To  play 
is  more  pleasant  than  working.  3.  They  either  could  not,  nor 
desired  to  learn.  4.  He  can  brag,  but  is  not  able  to  do  much. 
5.  That  lot  is  preferable  and  cheaper  than  yours.  6.  He  looks 
as  though  he  was  hungry.  7.  He  has  no  love  nor  veneration 
for  him. 

8.  I  can  not  tell  whether  he  has  returned  or  not.  9.  All 
were  drowned  save  me.  10.  Neither  James  or  John  came 
home  yesterday.  11.  1  always  desire  and  always  wished  for 
your  society.  12.  The  boy  would  and  did  have  his  own  way. 
13.  The  parliament  addressed  the  king,  and  has  been  pro- 
rogued the  same  day. 


220  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


232.   SUBORDINATE   CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule  XXI. — Subordinate  conjunctions  join  dissimilar 
elements. 

Rem.  I. — A  clause  introduced  by  a  subordinate  conjunction, 
conjunctive  adverb,  or  relative  pronoun,  performs  the  office 
of  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.  The  connective  unites 
the  clause  which  it  introduces  to  the  word  or  phrase  which 
is  modified;  asv  "He  said  that  he  would  come;"  "The  man 
whom  you  saw  is  the  sheriff;"    '  Do  you  know  where  I   live?" 

Rem.  2.  —  A  subordinate  connective  is  almost  invariably 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  clause  which  it  introduces. 
When  this  clause  is  used  as  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  or 
is  put  in  apposition  with  a  noun  in  any  case,  the  connective 
is  a  mere  introductory  word;  as,  "That  you  have  deceived 
me  doth  appear  from  this;"  "The  rumor  that  he  is  insane 
is  unfounded." 

EXERCISES. 

To   be  parsed: 

I.  Come  as  the  winds  come,  when  navies  are  stranded. 
2.  I  never  thought  that  it  could  be  so.  3.  He  locks  the 
door  after  the  horse  is  stolen.  4.  I  now  know  why  you  de- 
ceived me.     5.  He  will  have  friends  wherever  he  may  be. 

6.  I  could  distinguish  the  merchant  to  whom  the  ship  was 
consigned.  7.  However  stern  he  may  seem,  he  is  a  good  man. 
8.  While  there  is  life,  there  is  hope.  9.  Blessed  are  the 
merciful:  for  they  shall  obtain  mercy.  10.  He  rushes  to  the 
fray  as  if  he  were  summoned  to  a  banquet. 

II.  Whether  the  planets  are  inhabited,  was  discussed  last 
evening.  12.  I  consent  to  the  constitution,  because  I  expect 
no  better,  and  because  I  am  not  sure  it  is  not  the  best. 
13.  I  do  not  know  where  he  is.  14.  There  was  so  much 
noise  that    I   could   not  sleep. 

15.  We  meet  in  joy,  though  we  part  in  sorrow; 
We  part  to-night,  but  we  meet  to-morrow. 


SYNTAX— WOKDS    CLASSIFIED.  221 


233.  INTERJECTIONS. 

Rule  XXII. — An  interjection  has  no  dependence  upon 
other  words. 

EXERCISES. 

To   be  parsed: 

I.  What!  might  Rome  have  been  taken?  2.  Ha!  laughest 
thou,  Lochiel,  my  vision  to  scorn  ?  3.  Ho !  warden !  4.  Oh, 
fearful  woe !     5.  Ah  !  my  saying  was  true. 

6.  Hark !  hark !  to  God  the  chorus  breaks.  7.  Halloo !  my 
boys,  halloo!  8.  Pshaw!  there's  no  distress  in  that.  9.  Hem! 
what  is  it?     10.  Aha!  is  that  you? 

II.  Alas!  poor  Yorick!     12.  Adieu!  adieu!  my  native  land! 

13.  Hark!  they  whisper:  angels  say, 
Sister  spirit,  come  away. 


WORDS  VARIOUSLY  CLASSIFIED 


234.  OF  THE  USE   OP  WORDS. 

1.  The  same  word  may  belong  to  different  parts  of 
speech. 

2.  The  manner  in  which  a  word  is  used  determines 
its  classification. 

3.  The  normal  use  of  a  word  is  its  use  according  to 
its  ordinary  meaning  and  classification. 

4.  The  abnormal  or  exceptional  use  of  a  word  is  a 
variation  from  its  usual  meaning  or  classification. 

5.  The  idiomatic  use  of  a  word   or  expression  is  a 
departure  from  the  principles  of  universal   grammar. 


222 


ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 


A  .  .  . 
About 
Above 
Adieu 
After  . 
Again 
Alike  . 
All   . 

Any    . 
As  .. 


235.   EXAMPLES. 

(1)    Adj.,   "A    man;"    "An  ox."      (2)    Prep.,   "I  go  a- 
fishing." 


.  (1)  Adv.,  "He  wanders  about." 
about  the  weather." 


(2)  Prep.,  "We  talked 


.  (1)  Adv.,  "He  soars  above."  (2)  Prep.,  "He  soars  above 
the  clouds." 

.  (1)  Noun,  "He  bade  me  adieu."  (2)  Interjection,  "Adieu/ 
adieu/  my  native  land." 

.  (1)  Adv.,  "I  left  soon  after."  (2)  Prep.,  "He  ran  after 
me."     (3)  Conj.  Adv.,  "  He  came  after  you  left." 

.  (1)  Adv.,  "Come  again."  (2)  Conj.,  "Again,  you  have 
frequently  seen,"  etc. 

.  (1)  Adj.,  "Those  girls  look  alike."  (2)  Adv.,  "I  am  alike 
pleased  with  them  both." 

.  (1)  Noun,  "That  is  his  all."  (2)  Adj.,  "All  men;" 
"Good-bye  to  you  all;"  "All  were  there."  (3)  Adv.,  "He 
is  all  right ;  "  "  We  were  left  all  alone." 

.  (1)  Adj.,  "Have  you  any  objections?"  (2)  Adv.,  "He  is 
not  any  better." 

.  (1)  Adv.,  "As  black  as  night."  (2)  Conj.  Adv.,  "Do  as 
I  do,"  (manner) ;  "  He  is  as  tall  as  I  am,"  (compaiison) ; 
"  The  men  cheered  as  he  passed,"  (time) ;  "  I  will  go  now, 
as  [since]  I  am  a  little  lame,"  (cause  or  reason).  (3)  Cor. 
Conj.,  "As  the  door  turneth  on  its  hinges,  so  doth  the 
slothful  man  on  his  bed."  (4)  Rel.  pron.,  "They  are 
such  as  I  could  find."  (5)  Conj.  denoting  apposition, 
"He  shipped  as  second  mate;"  "As  mayor  of  the  city,  I 
feel  much  aggrieved."  (6)  Part  of  a  comp.  prep.,  "As 
to  that ;  "  "As  for  me,"  etc. 


As  follows  may  be  parsed  as  an  adverbial  phrase,  equivalent  to 
thus,  or  the  pronoun  it  may  be  supplied  as  the  grammatical  subject 
of  "follows."  Always  supply  it  in  parsing  as  appears,  as  concerns, 
and  as  regards. 

Before  .  .  (1)  Adv.,  "He  went  before."    (2)  Prep.,  "The  hills  rise 
before  him."     (3)  Conj.  adv.,  "He  spoke  before  I  did." 


SYNTAX— WOEDS  CLASSIFIED. 


223 


Below   .  .  (1)  Noun,  "I  came  from  below."     (2)  Adj.,  "He  is  in  one 

of  the  offices  below:1    (3)  Adv.,  "Go  below."    (4)  Prep., 
"Stand  below  me." 

Best  ...  (1)  Noun,  "Now  do  your  best."  (2)  Adj.,  "Covet  the 
best  gifts.  (3)  Adv.,  "Who  can  best  work  and  best  agree?" 
(4)  Adv.  phr.,  "Tones  he  loved  the  best." 

Better  .  .  (1)  Noun,  "They  scorn  their  betters."  (2)  Verb,  "Love 
betters  what  is  best."  (3)  Adj.,  "The  gray  mare  is  the 
better  beast."  (4)  Adv.,  "  Never  was  monarch  better 
feared." 

Both  ...  (1)  Adj.,  "Hear  both  sides."  (2)  Pron.  adj.,  "Both  ot 
them  made  a  covenant ; "  "  They  are  both  vagabonds.* 
(3)  Cor.  conj.,  "She  is  both  young  and  beautiful." 

But  ...  .  (1)  Adv.,  "If  they  kill  us,  we  shall  but  die."  (2)  But  a, 
Adj.,  "He  is  but  a  man."  (3)  Prep.,  "All  but  two  were 
drowned;"  "None  knew  thee  but  to  love  thee;"  "Whence 
all  but  him  had  fled."  (4)  Part  of  comp.  prep*,  "He 
would  steal  but  for  the  law."  (5)  Conj.,  "Knowledge 
comes,  but  wisdom  lingers ; "  "  When  pride  comes,  then 
cometh  shame;  but  with  the  lowly  is  wisdom."  (6)  Sub- 
stitute for  that  .  .  not,  "There  is  no  one  but  knows  the 
truth  "  =sr  "  There  is  no  one  that  does  not  know  the  truth." 

By  ....  (1)  Adv.,  "He  passed  by  on  the  other  side."  (2)  Prep., 
"We  have  come  by  the  valley  road." 

Close  .  .  (1)  Adj.,  "  From  a  close  bower  this  dainty  music  flowed ; " 
"He  is  a  close,  selfish  man."  (2)  Adv.,  "He  followed 
close  behind." 

Each  ...  (1)  Pron.  adj.,  "  They  searched  each  house ; "  "Each 
officer;"  "They  took  one  each;"  "Wandering  each  his 
several  way."     "  They  resemble  each  other."     (See  Sec.  50.) 

Else  ...  (1)  Adj.,  "Do  not  call  any  one  else."  (2)  Adv.,  "How 
else  can  this  be  done?"  (3)  Conj.,  "Thou  desirest  not 
sacrifice,  else  would  I  give  it." 

Enough  .  (1)  Noun,  "He  has  enough"  (2)  Adj.,  "I  have  trouble 
enough."     (3)  Adv.,  "I  know  you  well  enough." 

Except  .  .  (1)  Verb,  "Which  our  author  could  not  except  against." 
(2)  Prep.,  "  I  could  see  nothing  except  the  sky ; "  "Except 
these  bonds."  (3)  Conj.,  "Except  the  Lord  build  the 
house,  they  labor  in  vain  that  build  it." 


224 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Far  .  .  . 

Farewell 
Fast  .  . 

Few  .  . 
For .  .  . 

Full.  .  . 

Hard  .  . 

However 
III.  .  .  . 

Indeed  . 
Late  .  . 
Like   .  . 

Low    .  . 


(1)  Noun,  "He  came  from  far."  (2)  Adj.,  "We  be  come 
from  a  far  country."  (3)  Adv.,  "  Over  the  hills  and  far 
away;"    "Far  from  his  home." 

(1)  Noun,  "A  last  farewell"  (2)  Adj.,  "A  farewell  concert." 
(3)  Int.,  "Farewell/  " 

(1)  Noun,  "A  surfeit  is  the  father  of  much  fast."  "An 
annual  fast"  (2)  Verb,  "  Thou  didst  fast  and  weep  for 
thy  child."  (3)  Adj.,  "He  is  my  fast  friend."  (4)  Adv., 
"  We  will  bind  thee  fast;  "   "  He  runs  fast." 

(1)  Noun,  "A  few  escaped;"   "The  few  and   the   many." 

(2)  Adj.,  "We  have  a  few  copies  left." 

(1)  Prep.,  "We  waited  for  you;"  "He  writes  not  for 
money  nor  for  praise."  (2)  Conj.,  "  Give  thanks  unto 
the  Lord;  for  he  is  good:  for  his  mercy  endureth  for- 
ever."   See  As. 

(1)  Noun,  "The  full  of  the  moon."  (2)  Verb,  "The 
moon  fulls  to-night ; "    "  They  full  cloth  at   the  factory." 

(3)  Adj.,  "The  house  was  full;"  "A  full  supply."  (4) 
Adv.,  "  He  spake  full  well." 

(1)  Adj.,  "This  is  hard  work."  (2)  Adv.,  "He  works 
hard;"  "He  lives  hard  by  the  river."  (Hard  modifies 
the  phrase  "by  the  river.") 


(1)    Adv.,  "However  great.' 
house  was  not  burned." 


(2)    Conj.,  "However,   your 


(1)  Noun,  "Throw  off  the  ills;"  "The  ills  of  life."  (2) 
Adj.,  "I  was  quite  ill  yesterday."  (3)  Adv.,  "Ill  fares 
the  land  to  hastening  ills  a  prey." 

(1)  Adv.,  "It  is  indeed  true."  (2)  Conj.,  "Indeed,  I  was 
not  aware  of  it." 

(1)  Adj.,  "A  late  frost  destroyed  the  fruit.  (2)  Adv., 
"We  studied  early  and  late." 

(1)  Noun,  "Like  produces  like."  (2)  Verb,  "I  like  frank 
people."  (3)  Adj.,  "We  have  like  chances;"  "The  staff 
of  his  spear  was  like  a  weaver's  beam."  (4)  Prep.,  "  He 
ran  like  a  deer;"  "The  Assyrian  came  down  like  a  wolf 
on  the  fold." 

(1)  Adj.,  "He  is  very  low  this  evening."  (2)  Adv.,  "Aim 
low;  "    "  He  speaks  too  low." 


SYNTAX— WORDS  CLASSIFIED.  225 

More.  .  .  (1)  Noun,  "Have  you  any  more?"  "They  saved  some 
more,  some  less."  (2)  Adj.,  "We  want  more  men;"  "Let 
us  hear  no  more  complaints."  (3)  Adv.,  "  Which  returned 
not  again  unto  him  any  more." 

Much.  .  .  (1)  Noun,  "They  made  much  of  the  little  they  had." 
(2)  Adj.,  "He  displayed  much  learning."  (3)  Adv.,  "I 
am  much  disheartened  ;  "   "  Think  mucky 

Nay.  ...  (1)  Noun,  "The  nays  have  it;"  "I  say  nay."  (2)  Adv., 
"Nay,  I  said  not  so." 

Ay,  aye,  yea,  are  similar  to  nay  in  use  and  construction ;  as, 
"  The  ayes  have  it ;  "  "  Yea,  verily."  Yea  and  nay  are  also  used  as 
conjunctions  to  denote  emphatic  addition ;  as,  "What  carefulness  it 
wrought  in  you,  yea,  what  clearing  of  yourselves,  yea,  what  indigna- 
tion, yea,  what  fear,  yea,  what  vehement  desire,  yea,  what  zeal,  yea, 
what  revenge." — 2  Cor.  vii,  11. 

No  ....  (1)  Noun,  "  The  noes  have  it."  (2)  Adj.,  "  This  is  no 
place  for  mirth."     (3)  Adv.,  "  I  can  walk  no  faster." 

Notwithstanding.  (1)  Prep.,  "We  walked  notwithstanding  the  rain." 
(2)  Conj.,  "  He  is  kind,  notwithstanding  he  is  stern." 

Now  ...  (1)  Noun,  "Now  is  the  accepted  time ; "  "  Eternity  is  a 
never-ending  now."  (2)  Adv.,  "Come  now."  (3)  Conj., 
"Now,  Barabbas  was  a  robber." 

Once  ...  (1)  Noun,  "Forgive  me  just  this  once"  (2)  Adv.,  "He 
visits  us  once  a  year." 

Only  ...  (1)  Adj.,  "Is  this  the  only  hotel  in  town?"  (2)  Adv., 
"I  sing  only,  I  can  not  play." 

Over  .  .  ,   (1)  Adv.,  "They  passed  over;"  "Turn  over  a  new  leaf." 

(2)  Prep.,  "We  drove  over  the  bridge;"  "(her  the  hills." 

(3)  Part  of  a  comp.  prep.,  "Over  against  this  mountain." 

Right.  .  .  (1)  Noun,  "The  right  will  finally  triumph;"  "I  stand 
here  on  my  right;"  "Our  right*."  (2)  Adj.,  "The  right 
man  in  the  right  place ;  "  "  You  are  right."  (3)  Adv., 
"Bight  Reverend ;  "   "  Let  thine  eyes  look  right  on." 

Save  ...  (1)  Verb,  "Now  save   a   nation   and   now  save  a   groat." 
(2)  Prep.,  "Of  the  Jews,  five  times  received  I  forty  stripes 
save  one."     (3)  Conj.,  "And    that  no  man  might   buy  or 
sell  save  he  that  had  the  mark." — Rev.  xiii,  17. 
H.  G.— 15. 


226  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

So   ....  (1)  Adv.,  "Why   are   you   so   angry?"     *'He  said   so." 

(2)  Conj.,  "As  in  Adam  all  die,  so  in  Christ  shall  all  be 
made  alive." 

That  ...  (1)  Adj.,  "Watch  that  man;"  "That  house  is  sold;" 
"  This  is  as  good  soil  as  that."  (2)  Rel.  pron.;  "  Ye 
that  fear  the  Lord,  bless  the  Lord ; "  "  It  was  I,  not  he, 
that  did  it."  (3)  Conj.;  "  He  heard  that  his  friend  was 
sick ; "  "  Treat  it  kindly,  that  it  may  wish  with  us  to 
stay." 

The    .     .  (1)  Article,  "The  stars."    (2)  Adv.,  "The  more,  the  better." 

(3)  When   the  modifies    an   adverb,  it   forms  with  it  an 
adv.  phrase ;   as,  "  I  like  you  the  belter  for  that." 

Then  ...  (1)  Noun,  "Alas,  the  change  twixt  now  and  then."  (2) 
Adv.,  "We  then  ascended  the  tower."  (3)  Conj.,  "If 
you  do  not  want  it,  then  do  not  buy  it." 

There  .  .  (1)  Adv.,  "I  live  there;"  "Grass  grows  there  now."  (2) 
As  an  expletive,  used  to  introduce  a  sentence  in  a  partic- 
ular way;   as,  "There  were  three  of  us." 

Till  ....  (1)  Noun,  "  The  money  was  in  the  tUl."  (2)  Verb, 
"Farmers  till  the  ground."  (3)  Prep.,  "Stay  till  next 
Monday."    (4)  Conj.  adv.,  "  Stay  till  I  return." 

Up  ....  (1)  Noun,  "  The  ups  and  downs  of  life  are  many."  (2) 
Adv.,  "  Go  up,  baldhead."  (3)  Prep.,  "  They  sailed  up 
the  river." 

Well  ...  (1)  Noun,  "  The  well  is  sixty  feet  deep."  (2)  Verb, 
"  Blood  that  welled  from  the  wound."  (3)  Adj.,  "  Is  it 
well  with  thee?  "  (4)  Adv.,  "  The  work  was  well  done." 
(5)  Ind.  adv.,  "Well,  what  do  you  say?" 

What  ...  (1)  Rel.  pron.,  "  Pay  what  you  owe."     (2)  Int.  pron., 

"What  pleases  you?"      (3)  Adj.,  "What  vessel  is  that?" 

(4)  Adv.,  "What  [partly]  with  entreaty,  what  with  threat 
ening,  I  succeeded."  (5)  Interj.,  "What!  is  thy  servant 
a  dog?  " 

When  .  .  (1)  Noun,  "Since  when  was  it?"  (2)  Adv.,  "When  you 
were  there."  (3)  Conj.  adv.,  "Write  when  you  reach 
Boston."    So,  where. 

Which  .  .  (1)  Rel.  pron.,  "  The  house  in  which  I  live."  (2)  Int. 
pron.,  "JVhich  is  he?"  (3)  Adj.,  "Which  road  shall  I 
take?"    So,  who. 


SYNTAX— WOEDS  CLASSIFIED.  227 

While  .  .  (1)  Noun,  "That  is  worth  while."  (2)  Verb,  "We  will 
while  away  an  hour."  (3)  Adv.,  "While  waiting  for  the 
train."     (4)  Conj.  adv.,  "  We   listened  while  he  played." 

Worse  .  .  (1)  Noun,  "For  better  or  worse."  (2)  Adj.,  "He  is  worse 
to-day."     (3)  Adv.,  "  He  might  do  worse." 

Worth  .  .  (1)  Noun,  "They  have  lost  their  dignity  and  worth." 
(2)  Verb,  an  old  imperative  of  a  word  meaning  to  be, 
"Woe  worth  the  day."     (3)  Adj.,  "He  is  worth  a  million." 

Yet  ....  (1)  Adv.,  "Our  country  yet  remains."     (2)  Conj.,  "I  am 

disappointed,  yet  not  discouraged." 

Yonder  .  (1)  Adj.,  "Yonder  mountain."  (2)  Adv.,  "Who  beckons 
to  us  yonder." 

Rem.  I. — Nouns  may  perform  an  adjective  use,  and  still  be 
regarded  as  nouns;  as,  "The  suns  rays;"  "Gen.  Harrisons  resi- 
dence;" "Peter  the  Hermit;1'  "  Dionysius  the  Tyrant." 

Rem.  2„ — By  being  placed  before  the  words  which  they  mod- 
ify, nouns  may  be  used  as  adjectives;  as,  "Our  Indian  sum- 
mer;" "Christmas  eve;"  "Strawberry  short-cake."  Nouns  thus 
used  may  be  modified  by  adjectives;  as,  "The  High  Church 
Party;"    "The  Protective  Tariff  Bill." 

A  compound  expression  may  be  formed  by  uniting  two 
nouns,  or  a  noun  and  an  adjective,  by  a  hyphen;  as,  "Fire- 
clay brick;"  "air-pump  experiments;"  "a  white-oak  pail."  In 
all  cases,  the  limiting  noun  must  be  in  the  singular  number; 
as,  "A  four-rod  chain ;  "  "  a  ten-foot  pole."  "  This  medicine 
cures  fom^-diseases ; "  "a  spectacle-maker ;  "  "a  scissor-hi\\." 

A  compound  expression  may  be  formed  of  an  indefinite 
number  of  words,  joined  by  hyphens,  the  entire  phrase  being 
used  as  a  single  word;  as,  "The  Kansas-Nebraska  Bill;"  "an 
out-and-out  falsehood;"  "  He  was  dressed  in  brown-once-black." 

Rem.  3. — Nouns  connected  by  conjunctions  frequently  form 
a  compound  term,  which  must  be  regarded  as  a  single  thing, 
though  composed  of  distinct  parts;  as,  Three  dollars  a  day  and 
board  is  all  I  ask;"    "A  horse  and  wagon  was  stolen." 

Rem.  4. — Phrases,  inseparable  in  thought,  may  be  formed 
by  uniting  prepositions  with  themselves  or  other  parts  of 
speech. 


228  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

1.  A  verb  and  preposition ;  as,  to  cast  up,  to  buy  off,  to  bring  tos 
to  come  to,  tc  go  over.  etc.  The  preposition  should  be  consid- 
ered an  inseparable  part  of  the  verb,  but  it  may  be  parsed  as 
an  adverb. 

2.  A  preposition  and  adjective,  as,  on  high,  at  large,  in  earnest, 
at  most,  etc.;  inseparable  phrases,  either  adjective  or  adverbial. 

3.  Preposition  and  preposition)  as.  over  and  over,  by  and  by,  in 
and  in,  through  and  through,  etc. :  inseparable  adverbial  phrases. 

4.  Noun,  preposition,  and  noun ;  as,  day  by  day,  /ace  to  face, 
stride  by  stride,  cheek  by  jowl,  etc.  As  the  expressiveness  of 
these  phrases  is  destroyed  by  supplying  any  ellipsis,  they 
should  be  classed  among  inseparable  adverbial  phrases.  If 
preferred,  however,  each  word  may  be  parsed  separately,  the 
first  noun  being  made  the  object  of  a  preposition  understood. 

Rem.  5. — Two  prepositions  frequently  come  together:  in 
which  case  they  form  a  complex  preposition;  the  first  in  order 
is  an  adverb,  or  both  are  adverbs;  as,  "He  comes  from  over 
(complex  preposition)  the  sea;"  ''They  rode  by  (adverb)  in  a  car- 
riage;*' "The  whole  subject  was  gone  over  with"  (both  adverbs). 

Rem.  6. — Two  or  more  conjunctions  may  come  together:  in 
which  case  each  has  its  use,  which  should  always  be  regarded 
in  parsing;  a.a,  "Now  when  even  had  come;'1  "And  so  I  penned 
it  down." 

236.  EXERCISES. 

I.  He  has  been  ill  since  November.  2.  I  will  go,  provided 
he  sends  for  me.  3,  Can  you  not  still  this  noise  ?  4.  The  rain 
still  continues.  5.  The  before-mentioned  facts  are  before  you. 
6.  Does  he  live  anywhere  in  Ohio?  7.  This  boy  is  full  ten 
years  old.  8.  I  never  saw  a  saw  saw  a  saw  as  that  saw  saws 
a  saw.  9.  What  with  the  bread,  and  what  with  the  water,  he 
sustained  himself  for  several  weeks.  10.  Give  me  such  as  I 
bargained  for,  and  as  much  as  I  bargained  for. 

II.  What,  then,  could  be  done?  12.  He  has  come  round. 
13.  That  man  purchased  a  round  of  beef.  14.  The  weight  of 
this  box  is  forty  pounds.  15.  The  stars  are  out  by  twos  and 
threes.  16.  Whether  is  greater,  the  gold  or  the  temple? 
17.  Sing  unto  the  Lord,  0  ye  saints  of  his.     18.  No  man  can 


SYNTAX— WOKDS  CLASSIFIED.  229 

come  unto  me  except  the  Father  draws  him.  19.  He  maketh 
me  to  lie  down  in  green  pastures.  20.  They  have  promised, 
yet  they  do  not  perform.  21.  One  came,  methought,  and 
whispered  in  my  ear. 

22.  He  that  catches  at  more  than  belongs  to  him,  justly 
deserves  to  lose  what  he  has.  23.  All  this,  I  heard  as  one 
half  dead ;  but  answer  had  I  none  to  words  so  true,  save 
tears  for  my  sins.  24.  Dreaming,  she  knew  it  was  a  dream. 
25.  I  have  told  what,  and  how  true  thou  art.  26.  He  thought 
only  of  his  subject.  27.  The  path  of  glory  leads  but  to  the 
grave.  28.  Kings  will  be  tyrants  from  policy  when  subjects 
are  rebels  from  principle.  29.  Angling  is  somewhat  like 
poetry:   men  are  apt  to  be  born  so. —  Walton. 

30.  And  the  final  event  to  himself  has  been  that,  as  he  rose 
like  a  rocket,  he  fell  like  the  stick.  31.  There  shall  nothing 
die  of  all  that  is  the  children's  of  Israel.  32.  We  have  just 
come  from  Brown  and  Starr's.  33.  Three  times  seven  are 
twenty-one.  34.  I  paid  thirty-seven  and  a  half  cents  for  butter 
this  morning.  35.  Wheat  is  two  dollars  a  bushel.  36.  He  ran 
the  train  at  the  rate  of  forty  miles  an  hour.  37.  The  more  I 
see  of  him  the  better  I  like  him. 

38.  Let  your  communication  be  yea,  yea,  and  nay,  nay. 
39.  As  far  as  the  east  is  from  the  west,  so  far  hath  He  re- 
moved our  transgressions  from  us.  40.  Therefore,  if  thine 
enemy  hunger,  feed  him;  if  he  thirst,  give  him  drink:  for  in 
so  doing,  thou  shalt  heap  coals  of  fire  on  his  head.  41.  It  is 
good  for  us  to  be  here.  42.  Consider  the  lilies  of  the  field, 
how  they  grow;  they  toil  not,  neither  do  they  spin.  43.  A 
little  one  shall  become  a  thousand,  and  a  small  one  a  strong 
nation.  44.  If  I  forget  thee,  0  Jerusalem,  let  my  right  hand 
forget  her  cunning. 

45.  Hitherto  shalt  thou  come,  but  no  further.  46.  Yet  man 
is  born  unto  trouble,  as  the  sparks  fly  upward.  47.  "  Madam," 
said  I,  emphatically,  "  you  are  in  an  error."  48.  How  feeble 
were  the  attempts  at  planting  towns,  is  evident  from  the 
nature  of  the  tenure  by  which  the  lands  near  the  Saco  were 
held. — Bancroft  49.  This  is — what  shall  we  call  it?  50.  It  is 
he,  even  he.  51.  He  was  not  even  invited  to  be  present. 
52.   Is  your  health   good,  now? — Rather  so.     53.  The  garret 


230  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

was  filled  with  broken  chairs,  cast-off  garments,  and  what  not. 
54.  How  long  was  it  before  the  man  came  to? — About  three 
"quarters  of  an  hour.  55.  No  quips,  now,  Pistol:  indeed  I  am 
in  the  waist  two  yards  about. 

56.  He  that  will  not  when  he  may, 
When  he  would,  he  shall  have  nay. 

57.  For  what  is  worth  in  any  thing 

But  so  much  money  as 't  will  bring? — Butler. 

58.  The  swan  on  still  St.  Mary's  lake, 

Float  double,  swan  and  shadow. —  Wordsworth. 

59.  Here  lies  what  once  was  Matthew  Prior: 

The  son  of  Adam  and  Eve: 
Can  Bourbon  or  Nassau  claim  higher? — Matt.  Prior. 

60.  I  can  not  tell  what  you  and  other  men 
Think  of  this  life;  but  for  my  single  self, 
I  had  as  lief  not  be  as  live  to  be 

In  awe  of  such  a  thing  as  I  myself. — Shakespeare. 

61.  Think  for  thyself — one  good  idea, 

But  known  to  be  thine  own, 
Is  better  than  a  thousand  gleaned 
From  fields  by  others  sown. —  Wilson. 

62.  So  we  were  left  galloping,  Joris  and  I, 

Past  Looz  and  past  Tongres,  no  cloud  in  the  sky: 
The  broad  sun  above  laughed  a  pitiless  laugh; 
'Neath  our  feet  broke  the  brittle  bright  stubble  like 

chaff; 
Till  over  by  Dalhem  a  dome-spire  sprang  white, 
And  "Gallop,"  gasped  Joris,  "for  Aix  is  in  sight." — 

Browning 

63.  This  well  may  be 

The  Day  of  Judgment  which  the  world  awaits; 

But,  be  it  so  or  not,  I  only  know 

My  present  duty,  and  my  Lord's  command 

To  occupy  till  he  come.     So  at  the  post 

Where  he  hath  set  me  in  his  providence, 

I  choose  for  one  to  meet  him  face  to  face, — 

No  faithless  servant  frightened  from  my  task, 

But  ready  when  the  Lord  of  the  harvest  calls.  —  Whittier. 


SYNTAX-FIGUEES.  231 


FIGURES    OF   LANGUAGE. 

237.   DEFINITIONS. 

1.  A  Figure  of  Speech  is  a  departure  from  the  or- 
dinary form,  regular  construction,  or  literal  significa- 
tion of  words. 

2.  A  Figure  of  Etymology  is  a  departure  from  the 
usual  form  of  a  word. 

3.  A  Figure  of  Syntax  is  a  departure  from  the  usual 
construction  of  words. 

4.  A  Figure  of  Rhetoric  is  a  departure  from  the 
primitive   or   literal  sense   of  a  word. 


238.   FIGURES   OF   ETYMOLOGY. 

1.  Apheresis  is  the  elision  of  a  letter  or  syllable 
from  the  beginning  of  a  word;  as,  'gainst,  for  against; 
Jgan,  for  began. 

2.  Prosthesis  is  the  prefixing  of  a  letter  or  syllable 
to   a  word;   as,  adown,   for   down;    beloved,   for   loved. 

3.  Syncope  is  the  omission  of  one  or  more  letters  in 
the  middle  of  a  word;  as,  ne'er,  for  never;  slumbyring, 
for  slumbering. 

4.  Tmesis  is  the  separation  of  a  compound  word  by 
the  insertion  of  a  word  between  its  parts;  as,  to  us 
ward,  for  toward  us;  how  high  soever,  for  howsoever 
high. 

5.  Apocope  is  the  omission  of  the  last  letter  or  syl- 
lable of  a  word;  as,  thy,  for  the;  yond,  for  yonder. 


232  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

6.  Paragoge  is  the  addition  of  a  letter  or  syllable  to 
the  end  of  a  word;  as,  bounden,  for  bound;  withouten, 
for  without. 

7.  Syneresis  is  the  contraction  of  two  syllables  into 
one ;  as,  don  H,  for  do  not ;   can  %  for  can  not. 

8.  Dieresis  is  the  separation  of  two  vowel  lettcrr 
which  might  otherwise  form  a  diphthong  or  digraph, 
and  is  indicated  by  two  dots  over  the  second  vowel;  as, 
aerial,  'preeminent. 

239.   FIGURES   OP  SYNTAX. 

1.  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word,  phrase,  or 
clause  which  is  necessary  to  complete  the  construction 
of  a  sentence. 

Note. — For  examples  of  Ellipsis,  see  Sec.  203. 

2.  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  more  words  than  are  nec- 
essary. 

Ex. — "  I  saw  it  with  these  eyes."  "All  ye  inhabitants  of  the  world, 
and  dwellers  on  the  earth." 

Rem.  I. — Polysyndeton  is  the  repetition  of  a  conjunction;  as, 
"  He  is  good,  and  wise,  and  generous." 

Rem.  2. — Asyndeton  is  the  omission  of  connective  words  in 
a  sentence;  as,  "We  walked  slowly,  noiselessly,  with  bated 
breath." 

Rem.  3. — Anadiplosis  is  the  use  of  the  same  word  or  expres- 
sion in  the  termination  of  one    clause  of  a  sentence,  and  at  ■* 
the  beginning  of  the  next;  as,  "Has  he  a  gust  for  bloodl    Blood 
shall  fill  his  cup." 

Rem.  4. — Epizeuxis  is  the  emphatic  repetition  of  the  same 
word  or  words;  as,  "Alone,  alone,  all  all  alone." 

3.  Enallage  is  the  use  of  one  part  of  speech,  or  of 
one   form,   for  another. 

Ex. —  We,  for  I;  you,  for  thou;  "What  is  writ  is  writ." 


SYNTAX— FIGUKES.  233 

4.  Hyperbaton  is  the  transposition  of  words  from  the 
plain  grammatical  order 

Ex. — "He  wanders  earth  aronnd;"  "From  peak  to  peak,  the  rat- 
tling crags  among;  "  "Lightly  from  fair  to  fair  he  flew." 

5.  Syllepsis  is  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  the 
figurative  sense  of  another. 

Ex. — ''The  Word  was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt  among  us:  and  we 
beheld  his  glory." — John  i,  14. 

6.  Parenthesis  is  the  insertion  of  a  word  or  sentence 
between  the  parts  of  another  sentence. 

Ex. —  "Every  planet  (for  God  has  made  nothing  in  vain)  is  most 
probably  inhabited." 

7.  Zeugma  is  a  figure  by  which  an  adjective  or  verb, 
which  agrees  with  a  nearer  word,  is  referred  to  one 
more  remote. 

Ex. — "Lust  overcame  shame;  boldness,  fear;  and  madness,  reason." 


240.  FIGURES   OF  RHETORIC. 

1.  Simile  is  an  express  or  formal  comparison. 

Ex. — Like  a  dog,  he  hunts  in  dreams. — Tennyson. 

2.  Metaphor  is  the   expression   of  similitude  without 
the  signs  of  comparison. 

Ex. — "A  flash  of  wit ;  "    "A  sea  of  troubles ;  "    "  The  moralist  is  a 
scout  for  consequences ; "   "  The  wish  is  father  to  the  thought." 

3.  Personification  consists  in  attributing  life  and  mind 
to  inanimate  objects. 

Ex. — "O  Winter/  ruler  of  the  inverted  year;"  "The  earth  mourn-" 
eth  and  fadeth  away." 


234  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

4.  Allegory  is  a  discourse  in  which  one  subject  is 
described  by  another  resembling  it. 

Ex. — The  Pilgrim's  Progress;  Spencer's  Faerie  Queene;  Swift's 
Tale  of  a  Tub;   The  Vision  of  Mirza. 

Rem.  I. — A  Fable  is  a  short  allegory. 

Ex. — iEsop's  and  La  Fontaine's  Fables.  Most  fables  are  short 
stories  about  certain  animals  that  are  regarded  as  representatives  of 
particular  qualities;    as,  the  fox,  of  cunning;   the  lion,  of  strength. 

Rem.  2. — A  Parable  is  a  relation  of  something  real  in  nature 
from  which  a  moral  is  drawn. 

Ex. — Parable  of  the  Poor  Man  and  his  Lamb. — 2  Sam.  xii,  1-5. 
Of  the  Sower. — Matt.  xiii.    Of  the  Ten  Virgins. — Matt.  xxv. 

5.  Synecdoche  is  a  figure  by  which  the  whole  is  put 
for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole;  a  species  for  a 
genus,  or  a  genus  for  a  species,  etc. 

Ex. — Roof,  for  house  or  dwelling ;  bread,  for  food  generally ;  cut- 
throat, for  assassin. 

Rem.  I. — Antonomasia  is  the  use  of  a  proper  name  for  a 
common  name,  or  the  name  of  some  office,  rank,  profession, 
trade,  or  peculiarity,  instead  of  the  true  name  of  a  people  or 
class. 

Ex. — "He  is  a  Buckeye,"  i.  e.,  an  Ohioan;  "The  Crescent  City," 
i.  e.,  New  Orleans. 

Rem.  2.— Euphemism  is  the  substitution  of  a  delicate  word 
or  expression  for  one  which  is  harsh  or  offensive. 

Ex. — Departed,  gone  to  rest,  fallen  asleep,  for  dead;  stopped  payment, 
for  become  bankrupt;  embezzlement,  for  theft. 

6.  Metonymy  is  a  change  of  names,  or  a  figure  by 
which  one  word  is  put  for  another. 

Ex. — Gray  hairs,  for  old  age;  purse,  for  money;  fare,  for  a  passen- 
ger; city,  for  its  inhabitants;  "Ye  devour  widows'  houses." 

7.  Antithesis  is  the  opposition  of  words  and  senti- 
ments contained  in  the  same  sentence. 


SYNTAX— FIGUEES.  235 

Ex. — "Excess  of  ceremony  shows  want  of  breeding;"  "Wit  laughs 
at  things;  humor  laughs  with  them." — Whipple. 

8.  Epigram  is  a  sentence  in  which  the  form  of  the 
language  contradicts  the  meaning  conveyed. 

Ex. — "  I  can  not  see  the  city  for  the  houses."  "  Summer  has  set 
in  with  its  usual  severity." — Walpole.  "Any  thing  awful  always 
makes  me  laugh."-  Lamb.  "Nothing  so  fallacious  as  facts,  except 
figures." — Canning. 

Rem.  I. — The  Epigram  awakens  attention  by  the  seeming 
irrelevance  of  the  assertion,  or  by  the  form  given  to  it. 

Rem.  2. — The  Paronomasia,  or  Pun,  is  a  play  on  the  various 
meanings  of  the  same  word. 

Ex. — A  friend  of  Curran,  hearing  a  person  near  him  say  curosity 
instead  of  curiosity,  exclaimed:  "How  that  man  murders  the  English 
language ! "  "  Not  so  bad,"  said  Curran ;  "  he  has  only  knocked  an 
i  out." 

Rem.  3. — The  Conundrum  is  a  sort  of  riddle,  in  which  some 
odd  resemblance  between  things  unlike  is  proposed  for  dis- 
covery. 

9.  Hyperbole  is  an  exaggeration  of  the  meaning  in- 
tended to  be  conveyed,  by  magnifying  objects  beyond 
their  proper  bounds. 

Ex.— "The  land  flows  with  milk  and  honey."  "The  English 
gain  two  hours  a  day  by  clipping  words." — Voltaire. 

10.  Interrogation  is  the  putting  in  the  form  of  a 
question  what  is  meant  to  be  strongly  affirmative. 

Ex. — "Canst  thou  by  searching  find  out  God?" 

11.  Climax  is  an  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence, by  which  they  are  made  to  rise  step  by  step  in 
interest  or  importance. 

Ex. — "  It  is  an  outrage  to  bind  a  Eoman  citizen ;  to  scourge  him 
is  an  atrocious  crime ;  to  put  him  to  death  is  almost  a  parricide ;  but 
to  crucify  him — what  shall  I  call  it?  " — Oicero. 


236  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR 

Rem. — Anti-climax  is  any  great  departure  from  the  order  re- 
quired in  climax. 

Ex. — "That  all-softening,  overpowering  knell, 

The  tocsin  of  the  soul — the  dinner-bell." — Byron. 

12.  Exclamation  is  the  animated  or  impassioned  ex- 
pression of  sudden  and  intense  emotion. 

Ex. — "Oh,  what  a  pity!"  "A  horse,  a  horse,  my  kingdom  for  a 
horse."     " Blow,  winds,  and  crack  your  cheeks!" 

13.  Apostrophe  is  the  turning  away  from  the  real 
auditory,  and  addressing   an    absent   or  imaginary  one. 

Ex. —  "Ye  toppling  crags  of  ice! 

Ye  avalanches,  whom  a  breath  draws  down, 
In  mountainous  overwhelming,  come  and  crush  me." — Byron. 

Rem. — Hypotyposis,  or  Vision,  is  a  description  of  things  in 
such  strong  and  lively  colors,  as  to  bring  the  absent  before 
the  mind  with  the  force  of  present  reality. 

Ex. — "I  see  the  rural  virtues  leave  the  land." — Goldsmith.  "Greece 
cries  to  us  by  the  convulsed  lips  of  her  poisoned,  dying  Demosthe- 
nes."— Everett. 

14.  Innuendo  is  a  covert  suggestion  of  an  author's 
meaning,  instead  of  an  open  expression  of  it. 

Ex. — "He  did  his  party  all  the  harm  in  his  power:  he  spoke  for 
it,  and  voted  against  it." 

15.  Irony  is  a  mode  of  expression  by  which  what 
is  said  is  contrary  to  what  is  meant. 

Ex. — "  No  doubt  but  ye  are  the  people,  and  wisdom  will  die  with 
you."    "You  are  a  pretty  fellow!" 

Rem.  —  Sarcasm  is  a  keen,  reproachful,  and  scornful  ex- 
pression. 

Ex. — "Who  but  must  laugh,  if  such  a  man  there  be? 

Who  would  not  weep  if  Atticus  were  he?" — Pope. 

16.  Litotes  is  a  mode  of  expressing  something  oy 
denying  the  contrary. 


PUNCTUATION.  237 

Ex. — "Nor  are  thy  lips  ungrateful,  sire  of  men, 
Nor  tongue  inadequate:  for  God  on  thee 
Abundantly  his  gifts  hath  also  poured." — Milton. 

17.  Catachresis  is  wresting  a  word  from  its  original 
signification,  and  making  it  express  something  at  va- 
riance with  its  true  meaning. 

Ex. — "Silver  curling-irons;  "  "A  glass  ink-horn;"  "Her  voice  was 
but  the  shadow  of  a  sound" — Young. 


PUNCTUATION. 


241.  DEFINITION. 

1.  Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  written  dis- 
course into  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences,  by  means 
of  points  or  marks. 

Rem.  I. — Points  are  principally  used  for  the  purpose  of  ren- 
dering the  sense  more  intelligible.  They  do  not  mark  all  the 
pauses  made  in  reading,  though  a  pause  is  generally  made 
where  a  point  is  used. 

Rem.  2.— A  change  in  the  punctuation  of  a  sentence,  gen- 
erally produces  a  change  in  the  meaning. 
Ex. — John  Keys  the  lawyer  says  he  is  guilty. 

John,  Keys  the  lawyer  says  he  is  guilty. 

John  Keys,  the  lawyer  says  he  is  guilty. 

"John  Keys  the  lawyer,"  says  he,  "is  guilty." 

2.  The  principal  marks  used  in  punctuation  are  the 
following : 


Comma, 

Semicolon,  .... 

Colon 

Period, 

Interrogation  Point, 


Exclamation  Point,      ! 

Dash, — 

Curves, () 

Brackets [] 


238  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


242.  THE  COMMA. 

The  Comma  denotes  the  slightest  degree  of  separa- 
tion between  the  elements  of  a  sentence. 

Rule  I. — A  complex  subject,  if  long,  should  be  sep- 
arated from  the  predicate  by  a  comma. 

Ex. — The  patriarchal  church,  inconsiderable  in  size  and  mean  in 
decoration,  stands  on  the  outermost  islet  of  the  Venetian  group. — 
Buskin. 

Rule  II. — A  clause  used  as  subject,  if  it  ends  with 
a  verb,  should  be  separated  from  the  predicate  by  a 
comma. 

Ex. — 1.  Whatever  is,  is  right.  2.  Whosoever  perseveres,  will  suc- 
ceed. 

Rule  III. — Nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  nominative 
absolute  case  by  pleonasm  or  direct  address,  should  be 
separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Our  souls,  how  heavily  they  go,  to  reach  immortal  joys. 
2.  Take,  O  boatman,  thrice  thy  fee. 

Rule  IV. — Adjective,  participial,  appositive,  and  ab- 
solute phrases,  should  be  separated  from  the  context 
by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Faithful  to  his  promise,  he  assisted  me  in  obtaining  em- 
ployment. 2.  Having  once  lost  the  good  opinion  of  our  friends,  it 
is  difficult  for  us  to  reclaim  it.  3.  The  maxim,  "Enough  is  as 
good  as  a  feast,"  has  silenced  many  a  vain  wish. 

Rem.  I. — Nouns  in  apposition,  unmodified,  or  modified  by 
the  only,  are  not  separated  by  commas;  as,  "The  Emperor 
Nero  was  a  cruel  tyrant;"  "Thomson  the  poet  was  indolent." 

Rem.  2. — An  appositive  word  or  expression  introduced  by 
as  or  or,  should  be  set  off  by  a  comma;  as,  "So  that  he,  as 
God,  sitteth  in  the  temple  of  God'; "  "  Maize,  or  Indian  corn, 
is  raised  here." 


PUNCTUATION.  239 

Rule  V. — Transposed  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  are 
usually  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Doubtless,  the  man  is  guilty:  the  evidence,  however,  is 
not  conclusive.  2.  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  Him  declare  1 
unto  you. 

Rem.  I. — A  transposed  objective  element  is  not  usually  set 
off  by  a  comma;   as,  "That  book  he  has  never  returned." 

Rem.  2. — When  an  inverted  expression  begins  with  it  is  or 
only,  it  is  not  set  off  by  a  comma;  as,  "It  is  a  pleasant  thing 
to  see  the  sun;"  "Only  on  slight  occasions  they  felt  disposed 
to  be  merciful." 

Rule  VI. — Parenthetical  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by 
commas. 

Rem. — A  parenthetical  word  or  expression  is  one  which  is 
not  essential  to  the  grammatical  construction  of  a  sentence, 
but  is  required  to  express  its  full  meaning. 

Ex. — 1.  He  invented,  it  is  said,  the  theory  of  moral  science. 
2.  That  excitement,  too,  was  of  the  most  dangerous  kind. 

Rule  VII. — Adverbs  used  independently,  or  modify- 
ing an  entire  proposition,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — 1.  Yea,  the  earth  itself  shall  pass  away.  2.  Well,  if  this  is 
law,  I  want  no  more  of  it.    3.  Indeed,  you  must  wait  awhile. 

Rule  VIII. — When  a  verb  is  omitted  to  avoid  repeti- 
tion, its  place  is  usually  supplied  by  a  comma. 

Ex. — 1.  One  murder  makes  a  villain;  millions,  a  hero.  2.  War 
is  the  law  of  violence;   peace,  the  law  of  love. 

Rem. — There  are  many  exceptions  to  this  rule.  The  gen- 
eral practice  is,  to  omit  the  comma  unless  clearness  and  pre- 
cision demand  its  insertion;  as,  "Reading  maketh  a  full  man, 
conference  a  ready  man,  and  writing  an  exact  man." — Bacon. 

Rule  IX. — 'Antithetical  words,  phrases,  and  clauses 
should   be   separated   by  commas. 


240  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Ex. — 1.  Talent  has  many  a  compliment  from  the  bench,  hut  tact 
touches  fees.  2.  Strong  proofs,  not  a  loud  voice,  produce  conviction. 
3.  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;   though  gentle,  yet  not  dull. 

Rule  X. — The  members  of  compound  sentences,  when 
short  and  connected  by  conjunctions,  should  be  sepa- 
rated by  commas. 

Ex.  —  The  simplicity  of  his  character  inspired  confidence,  the 
ardor  of  his  eloquence  roused  enthusiasm,  and  the  gentleness  of 
his  manners  invited  friendship. 

Rule  XI. — Two  correlative  clauses  should  be  sepa- 
rated  by  commas. 

Ex. — As  the  lightning  that  lighteneth  out  of  the  one  part  under 
heaven,  shineth  unto  the  other  part  under  heaven,  so  shall  the  Son 
of  Man  be  in  his  day. 

Rem. — Two  correlative  clauses,  joined  by  as  or  than,  should 
not  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as,  "She  is  as  old  as  he?" 
"A  good  name  is  rather  to  be  chosen  than  great  riches." 

Rule  XII. — The  clauses  of  complex  sentences  should 
be  separated  by  commas,  unless  the  dependent  clauses 
are  very  short  and  the  connection  very  close. 

Ex. — I  took  notice,  in  particular,  of  a  very  profligate  fellow,  who, 
I  did  not  question,  came  loaded  with  his  crimes;  but  upon  search- 
ing his  bundle,  I  found  that,  instead  of  throwing  his  guilt  from 
him,  he  had  only  laid  down  his  memory. — Addison. 

Rule  XIII. — When  words  are  arranged  in  pairs,  each 
couplet  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — Sink  or  swim,  live  or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  give  my 
hand  and  my  heart  to  this  vote. 

Rule  XIV. — Each  term  of  a  series  of  words  in  the 
same  construction,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — War,  peace,  darts,  spears,  towns,  rivers,  every  thing,  in  his 
writings,  is  alive. 


PUNCTUATION.  241 

Rem.  —  Two  words,  closely  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
should  not  be  separated;  as,  "Honor  and  fame  from  no 
condition    rise." 

Rule  XV. — A  direct  quotation,  separated  by  a  prin- 
cipal clause,  should  be  set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — "Oh,  Mr.  Pickwick,"  said  Mrs.  Bardell,  trembling  with 
agitation,  "  you  're  very  kind,  sir." 

Rule  XVI.  —  A  quoted  sentence,  a  long  infinitive 
phrase,  or  an  indirect  quotation,  introduced  by  that, 
should  usually  be  set  off  by  a  comma. 

Ex. — 1.  He  asked,  "Why  are  you  so  melancholy?"  2.  I  have 
heard  say  of  thee,  that  thou  canst  understand  a  dream  to  interpret 
it.  2.  To  correct  such  gross  vices  as  lead  us  to  commit  a  real  in- 
jury to  others,  is  the  part  of  morals,  and  the  object  of  the  most 
ordinary  education. — Hume. 

Rule  XVII. — Words  repeated  for  emphasis  should  be 
set  off  by  commas. 

Ex. — Verily,  verily,  I  say  unto  you. 

Rule  XVIII. — Whenever  ambiguity  would  arise  from 
its  omission,  a  comma  should  be  inserted. 

£x. — I  have  a  house  with  nine  rooms,  and  out-buildings. 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  commas  wherever  required  in  these  sentences: 

1.  A  man  who  does  so  care  has  a  garment  embroidered 
with  hooks  which  catches  at  every  thing  that  passes  by. 
2.  Come  Rollo — let  us  take  a  walk.  3.  We  often  commend 
as  well  as  censure  imprudently.  4.  The  deaf  and  the  blind 
and  the  lame  were  there.  5.  The  rich  and  the  poor — the 
high  and  the  low — the  learned  and  the  unlearned — have  ac- 
cess alike  to  this  fountain  of  peace.  6.  I  see  then  in  revela- 
tion a  purpose  corresponding  with  that  for  which  human 
H.  G.-16. 


242  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

teaching  was  instituted.  7.  The  oranges,  lemons  and  figs 
which  grow  in  the  northern  range  of  the  Southern  States 
are  of  an  inferior  quality. 

8.  "Think  you  Abel"  said  Paul  at  last  "that  the  storm 
drove  thither?"  9.  Yes,  I  am  sure  it  is  so.  10.  As  it  was 
then  so  it  is  now.  11.  He  that  seeketh  findeth.  12.  I  lisped 
in  numbers  for  the  numbers  came.  13.  The  idle  want  steadi- 
ness of  purpose;  the  indolent  power  of  exertion.  14.  It  was 
said  of  Socrates  that  he  brought  philosophy  down  from  heaven 
to  dwell  among  men.  15.  An  indirect  advantage  but  a  very 
considerable  one  attendant  upon  various  modes  of  recreation 
is  that  they  provide  opportunities  of  excelling  in  something 
to  boys  and  men  who  are  dull  in  things  which  form  the 
staple   of  education. 


243.   THE  SEMICOLON. 

The  Semicolon  denotes  a  degree  of  separation,  greater 
than  that  denoted  by  the  comma. 

Rule  I. — The  semicolon  should  be  used  before  as, 
namely,  to  wit,  viz.,  introducing  an  example  or  an 
illustration. 

Ex. — 1.  One  part  only  of  an  antithesis  is  sometimes  expressed; 
as,  "A  friendly  eye  would  never  see  such  faults."  2.  Some  men 
distinguish  the  period  of  the  world  into  four  ages;  viz.,  the  golden 
age,  the  silver  age,  the  brazen  age,  and  the  iron  age. 

Rule  II.  —  The  semicolon  is  used  to  separate  the 
members  of  a  compound  sentence,  when  the  -connect- 
ive is  omitted. 

Ex. — The  earth  glows  with  the  colors  of  civilization ;  the  banks 
of  the  stream  are  enameled  with  the  richest  grasses;  woodlands  and 
cultivated  fields  are  harmoniously  blended;  the  birds  of  spring  find 
their  delight  in  orchards  and  trim  gardens,  variegated  with  choicest 
plants  from  every  temperate  zone;  while  the  brilliant  flowers  of 
the  tropics  bloom  from  the  windows  of  the  green-house  and  the 
saloon. — Bancroft. 


PUNCTUATION.  243 

Rule  .III. — The  members  of  a  compound  sentence,  if 
long,  or  if  their  parts  are  set  off  by  commas,  should 
be  separated  by  semicolons,  even  when  joined  by  con- 
nectives. 

Ex. — And  he  gave  some,  apostles;  and  some,  prophets;  and  some, 
evangelists;   and  some,  pastors  and  teachers. 

Rule  IV. — Successive  clauses  having  a  common  de- 
pendence, should  be  separated  by  semicolons. 

Ex. — My  imagination  would  conjure  up  all  that  I  had  heard  or 
read  of  the  watery  world  beneath  me;  of  the  finny  tribes  that  roam 
in  the  fathomless  valleys;  of  shapeless  monsters  that  lurk  among 
the  very  foundations  of  the  earth;  and  those  wild  phantasms  that 
swell  the  tales  of  fishermen  and  sailors. — Irving. 

Rem. — This  rule  applies,  also,  to  a  series  of  phrases,  some 
one  of  which  is  composed  of  parts  separated  by  commas;  as, 
'To  be  delivered  from  trouble;  to  be  relieved  from  power; 
to  see .  oppression  humbled ;  to  be  freed  from  sickness  and 
distress ;  .  to  lie  down  as  in  a  bed  of  security,  in  a  long  ob- 
livion of  our  woes;  to  sleep  in  peace  without  the  fear  of  in- 
terruption;— how  pleasing  the  prospect!" 

Rule  V. — An  inferential,  contrasted,  or  explanatory 
clause,  introduced  by  for,  but,  and,  or  an  equivalent 
connective,  is  usually  set  off  by  a  semicolon. 

Ex. — 1.  Kejoice  the  soul  of  thy  servant;  for  unto  thee,  O  Lord, 
I  lift  up  my  soul.  2.  The  person  he  chanced  to  see,  was,  to  ap- 
pearance, an  old,  sordid,  blind  man;  but  upon  his  following  him 
from  place  to  place,  he  at  last  found,  by  his  own  confession,  that 
he  was  Plutus,  the  god  of  riches,  and  that  he  was  just  come  out 
of  the  house  of  a  miser. 

Rem. — When  the  clauses  a*re  short,  the  semicolon  is  fre- 
quently replaced  by  the  comma;    as,  "I  go,  but  I  return." 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  semicolons  wherever  required  in  these  sentences : 

1.  A  Scotch  mist  becomes  a  shower,  and  a  shower,  a  flood, 
and  a  flood,  a  storm,  and  a  storm,  a  tempest,  and  a  tempest, 


244  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 

thunder  and  lightning,  and  thunder  and  lightning,  heaven- 
quake  and  earth-quake.  2.  Wit  is  abrupt,  darting,  scornful, 
and  tosses  its  analogies  in  your  face,  Humor  is  slow  and  shy, 
insinuating  its  fun  into  your  heart.  3.  An  enigma  is  a  dark 
saying,  an  obscure  question,  a  riddle. 


244.    THE    COLON. 

The  Colon  denotes  a  degree  of  separation  greater 
than  that  indicated   by  the   semicolon. 

Rule  I. — The  colon  should  be  used  after  the  formal 
introduction  to  a  speech,  a  course  of  reasoning,  a 
lengthy  quotation,  or  an  enumeration  of  particulars. 

Ex. — 1.  Then  closing  the  book,  he  proceeded  in  a  lower  tone: 
"  The  philosophers  of  whom  you  have  read  in  the  dictionary,  pos- 
sessed this  wisdom  only  in  part,  because  they  were  heathens." 

2.  Be  our  plain  answer  this:  the  throne  we  honor  is  the  people's 
choice;  the  laws  we  reverence  are  our  brave  father's  legacy;  the 
faith  we  follow  teaches  us  to  live  in  bonds  of  charity  with  all 
mankind,  and  die  with  hope  of   bliss  beyond  the  grave. 

Rule  II. — The  colon  should  be  used  before  an  ex- 
planatory remark,  or  one  which  presents  the  meaning 
of  the  preceding  sentence  in  another  form. 

Ex. — 1.  All  reasoning  is  retrospective:  it  consists  in  the  appli- 
cation of  facts  and  principles  previously  known.  2.  By  degrees  he 
infuses  into  it  the  poison  of  his  own  ambition-,  he  breathes  into  it 
the  fire  of  his  own  courage. 

Rule  III. — The  members  of  a  compound  sentence, 
whose  parts  are  phrases  or  clauses  set  off  by  semi- 
colons,  should   be   separated   by  colons. 

Ex. — We  do  not  say  that  his  error  lies  in  being  a  good  member 
•of  society)  this,  though  only  a  circumstance  at  piesent,  is  a  very 
fortunate  one:  the  error  lies  in  his  having  discarded  the  authority 
of  God,  as  his  legislator;  or,  rather,  in  his  not  having  admitted  the 
influence  of  that  authority  over  his  mind,  heart,  or  practice. 


PUNCTUATION.  245 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  colons  wherever  required  in  these  sentences : 

1.  There  are  five  senses,  sight,  hearing,  feeling,  taste,  and 
smell.  2.  The  discourse  consisted  of  two  parts,  in  the  first 
was  shown  the  necessity  of  exercise;  in  the  second,  the  ad- 
vantages that  would  result  from  it.  3.  Men's  evil  manners 
live  in  brass;  their  virtues  we  write  in  water.  4.  Write  on 
your  slates  the  following  example,  the  lake  is  very  deep. 


245.  THE  PERIOD. 

The  Period  denotes  the  greatest  degree  of  separation. 

Rule  I. — The  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of 
a  declarative  or  imperative  sentence. 

Ex. — 1.  Contrivance  proves  design.     2.  Study  diligently. 

Rem. — A  period  is  sometimes  placed  at  the  end  of  the  first 
of  two  or  more  complete  sentences  joined  by  conjunctions; 
as,  "Seeing,  then,  that  these  things  can  not  be  spoken  against, 
ye  ought  to  be  quiet,  and  to  do  nothing  rashly.  For  ye 
have  brought  hither  these  men,  who  are  neither  robbers  of 
churches,  nor  yet  blasphemers  of  your  goddess." 

Rule  II. — The  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of 
every  abbreviated  word. 

Ex.— H.  M.  Swainson,  Esq.,  b.  Feb.  10,  1757,  d.  Ap.  3,  1812. 

Rem.  I. — The  period,  thus  used,  is  a  part  of  the  abbrevia- 
tion. Except  at  the  end  of  a  sentence,  the  point  required  by 
the  construction  should  be  used  after  it;  as,  "Sir  Humphrey 
Davy,  F.  E.  S.,  etc.;"  "Ohio  is  bounded  N.  by  Mich,  and  L. 
E. ;    E.  by  Pa.  and  Va. ;    S.  by  Va.  and  Ky. ;    W.  by  Ind." 

Rem.  2. — Some  proper  names,  though  shortened,  should  not 
be  regarded  as  abbreviations;  as,  "Tom  Moore;"  "Will  Shakes- 
peare;"   "O  rare  Ben  Jonson." 

Rem.  3. — Such  expressions  as  4to,  8vo,  12mo,  1st,  2d,  3d,  5's, 
ll's,  4°,  7',  etc.,  are  not  abbreviations.  The  figures  supply  the 
places  of  the  first  letters  of  the  words,  and  the  signs  or  indices 
supply  the  place  of  words. 


246  ENGLISH  GBAMMAR. 

Rem.  4. — The  period  should  be  placed  before  decimals,  and 
between  the  denominations  of  sterling  money;  as,  $35.75; 
£5.  125.  M. 

Rem.  5. — The  period  should  always  be  placed  after  letters 
used  as  numerals;  as,  Ps.  lxxv.  6,  7;  George  III.,  King  of 
England. 

Rem.  6. — The  period  should  be  placed  at  the  end  of  titles, 
headings,  etc. ;  as,  "  Concerning  Veal."  "  Hopkins  &  Co." 
"The  Preposition."     "Chap.  XXVII." 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  periods  wherever  required  in  these  sentences : 

1.  D.  K.  Merwin  Esq  was  chosen  chairman.  2.  II  C  Cart- 
wright  b  A  D  1825,  d  Feb  2,  1854  3.  See  Rev  xii  11. 
4.  Chapter  XX  §  IV  Part  II    5.  It  cost  in  London  £6,  7s,  8d. 


246.    THE  INTERROGATION  POINT. 

The  Interrogation  Point  denotes  that  a  question  is 
asked. 

Rule. — The  interrogation  point  should  be  used  at 
the  end  of  an  interrogative  sentence. 

Ex. — 1.  Were  you  there?  2.  By  whom  was  this  extraordinary 
work  of  art  executed? 

Rem.  1. — When  a  question  is  composed  of  several  parts,  and 
when  several  questions  are  contained  in  one  sentence,  one 
answer  only  being  required,  the  interrogation  point  is  placed 
only  at  the  end;  as,  "By  whom  is  this  profession  praised,  but 
by  wretches  who  consider  him  as  subservient  to  their  pur- 
poses; sirens  that  entice  him  to  shipwreck;  and  cyclops  that 
are  gaping  to  devour  him?" 

Rem.  2. — The  interrogation  point  should  be  used  after  each 
successive  particular  of  a  series  of  questions,  related  in  sense, 
but  distinct  in  construction;  as,  "Why  was  the  French  revo- 
lution so  bloody  and   destructive?    Why  was  our  revolution 


PUNCTUATION.  247 

of  1641  comparatively  mild?  Why  was  our  revolution  of  1688 
milder  still?  Why  was  the  American  revolution,  considered 
as  an  internal  movement,  the  mildest  of  all?" 


247.   THE  EXCLAMATION  POINT. 

The  Exclamation   Point  denotes  passion  or  emotion. 

Rule. — The  exclamation  point  should  be  placed  after 
expressions  denoting  strong  emotion. 

Ex. — 1.  Avaunt,  thou  witch!  2.  Mercy,  sir,  how  the  folks  will 
talk  of  it!    3.  Alas,  poor  Yorick! 

Rem. — The  exclamation  point  should  not  be  used  after  in- 
terjections closely  connected  with  other  words,  but  at  the  end 
of  each  expression  of  which  the  interjections  form  a  part;  as, 
"Fie  upon  you!"     "All  hail,  ye  patriots  brave !:' 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  the  points  required  in  these  sentences : 

1.  What  did  my  fathers  godson  seek  your  life  He  whom 
my  father  named  2.  See  there  behold  look  lo  if  I  stand 
here  I  saw  him. 


248.   THE   DASH. 

The  Dash  is  a  straight,  horizontal  line,  placed  be- 
tween the  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Rule  I. — The  dash  should  be  used  where  there  is  a 
sudden  break  or  stop  in  a  sentence,  or  a  change  in 
its  meaning  or  construction. 

Ex. — 1.  Dim— dim — I  faint — darkness  comes  over  my  eyes.  2.  It 
glitters  awhile — and  then  melts  into  tears.  3.  He  stamped  and 
he  stormed— then  his  language!— Oh,  dear!  4.  Miss  frowned,  and 
blushed,  and   then  was — married. 


248  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Rule  II. — The  dash  is  frequently  used  before  words 
repeated  in  an  emphatic  manner. 

Ex. — Why  should  I  speak  of  his  neglect — neglect  did  I  say?  call 
it  rather  contempt. 

Rule  III. — The  dash  is  frequently  placed  both  before 
and  after  a  parenthesis — the  curves  being  omitted. 

Ex. — They  see  three  of  the  cardinal  virtues  of  dog  or  man — cour- 
age, endurance,  and  skill — in  intense  action. 

Rem. — A  comma  should  precede  each  dash  used  to  set  off 
a  parenthetical  expression;  as,  "The  archetypes,  the  ideal 
forms  of  things  without, — if  not,  as  some  philosophers  have 
said,  in  a  metaphysical  sense,  yet  in  a  literal  ane, — exist 
within  us." 

Note. — An  interrogation  or  an  exclamation  point  should  precede 
the  second  dash,  when  the  parenthetical  expression  is  a  question  or 
denotes  emotion. 

Rule  IV. — The  dash  is  often  used  where  there  is  an 
omission  of  letters  or  figures,  or  of  words  commonly 
used  to  introduce  an  enumeration  of  particulars. 

Ex. — 1.  L — d  B — n;  i.  e.,  Lord  Byron.  2.  Ps.  xxxv.  6 — 10;  i.  e., 
Ps.  xxxv.  6,  7,  8,  9,  10.  3.  Amongst  us  men,  these  three  things 
are  a  large  part  of  our  virtues, — to  endure,  to  forgive,  and  ourselves 
to  get  pardon. 


249.  THE  MARKS  OF  PARENTHESIS. 

The  Curves  include  an  expression  which  has  no  nec- 
essary connection,  in  sense  or  construction,  with  the 
sentence  in  which  it  is  inserted. 

Rem. — Such  an  expression  is  called  a  parenthesis. 

Rule. — The  curves  should  include  those  words  which 
may  be  omitted  without  injury  to  the  sense,  or  without 
affecting  the  grammatical  construction  of  the  sentence. 


PUNCTUATION.  249 

Ex. — Shall  we  continue  (alas,  that  I  should  be  constrained  to 
ask  the  question!)  in  a  course  so  dangerous  to  health,  so  enfeebling 
to  mind,  so  destructive  to  character? 

Rem.  I. — When  any  point  is  required  after  the  word  preced- 
ing a  parenthesis,  it  should  be  placed  after  the  second  curve; 
as,  "My  gun  was  on  my  arm  (as  it  always  is  in  that  district), 
but  I  let  the  stoat  kill  the  rabbit." 

But,  should  the  parenthesis  be  a  question  or  an  exclama-s 
tory  expression, '  the  point  should  be  placed  before  the  first 
curve,  and  that  which  belongs  to  the  parenthesis  before  the 
second;  as,  "She  had  managed  this  matter  so  well,  (oh,  she 
was  the  most  artful  of  women!)  that  my  father's  heart  was 
gone  before  I  suspected  it  was  in  danger." 

Rem.  2. — The  words  included  by  the  curves  should  be  punct- 
uated as  an  independent  expression;  as, 

"  The  Frenchman,  first  in  literary  fame, 
(Mention  him,  if  you  please.     Voltaire? — The  same.) 
With  spirit,  genius,  eloquence  supplied, 
Lived  long,  wrote  much,  laughed  heartily,  and  died." 

Rem.  3.— The  curves  sometimes  include  letters  or  figures 
used  to  enumerate  subjects  or  divisions  of  a  subject,  treated 
of  in  didactic  or  scientific  works;  as,  "(a.)  What  it  does; 
(b.)  What  it  is."  "The  beds  of  the  Jackson  epoch,  or  Upper 
Eocene,  are  (1.)  Lignitic  clay;  (2.)  White  and  blue  marls,  the 
former  often  indurated."  They  are  also  used  to  include  ref- 
erences;  as,  "(See  page  21)." 

EXERCISES. 

Insert  the  dash  and  the  curves  wherever  required  in  these  sentences : 

1.  He  had  a  large  blunt  head;  his  muzzle  black  as  night, 
his  mouth  blacker  than  any  night;  a  tooth  or  two,  being  all 
he  had,  gleaming  out  of  his  jaws  of  darkness.  2.  The  faithful 
man  acts  not  from  impulse  but  from  conviction,  conviction 
of  duty,  the  most  stringent,  solemn,  and  inspiring  conviction 
that  can  sway  the  mind.  3.  The  Egyptian  style  of  architect- 
ure see  Dr.  Pocock,  not  his  discourses,  but  his  prints  was 
apparently  the  mother  of  the  Greek. 


250  ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 


250.   BRACKETS. 

Brackets  are  used  to  inclose  words,  phrases,  and 
clauses  explanatory  of  what  precedes  them,  or  to  cor- 
rect an  error. 

Ex. — 1.  They  [the  Indians]  are  fast  disappearing.  2.  I  wish  you 
would  do  like  [as]  I  do. 


251.  OTHER  MARKS  USED  IN  WRITING. 

I.  The  Apostrophe  [']  is  used  to  denote  the  omis^ 
sion  of  one  or  more  letters,  or  to  mark  the  possess- 
ive case. 

Ex. — 1.  You  're  overwatched,  my  lord.  2.  Variety  *s  the  very 
spice  of  life.    3.  The  King's  English.    4.  Webster's  Dictionary. 

Rem. — The  apostrophe  is  also  used  in  forming  the  plurals 
of  letters,  figures,  marks,  etc. ;  as,  " Dot  your  is  and  cross 
your  ts."     "  Cast  out  the  9's."     "f's  and  §'s." 

II.  The  Hyphen  [-]  is  used  (1)  to  join  the  parts 
of  compound  words  and  expressions;  (2)  to  divide 
words  into  syllables;  (3)  after  a  syllable  at  the  end 
of  a  line,  when  the  rest  of  the  word  is  carried  to  the 
next  line. 

Ex. — 1.  Heaven-born  band.  2.  Thou  many-headed  monster  thing. 
— Scott.  3.  He  is  my  father-in-law,  and  always  wears  a  pepper-and- 
salt  suit.    4.  Com-mu-ni-ca-tive-ness. 

III.  The  Quotation  Marks  ["  "]  are  used  to  show 
that  a   passage   is    taken   verbatim    from    some   author. 

Ex. — Cowper  says,  "  Slaves  can  not  breathe  in  England." 

Rem. — A  quotation  included  within  another  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  single  inverted  comma,  and  closed  by  a  single 
apostrophe;  as,  "'War,  war.'  is  still  the  cry,  'war  even  to  the 
knife.' " 


PUNCTUATION.  251 

IV.  The  index  [***]  and  Asterism  [***]  point 
out  a  passage  to  which  special  attention  is  directed; 
as,  "  J^"  Do  not  forget  the  time  and  place  of  meeting." 

V.  The  Asterisk  [*],  the  Obelisk  or  Dagger  [f], 
the  Double  Dagger  [J[,  the  Section  [§],  the  Parallels 
[||],  and  the  Paragraph  [%],  refer  to  notes  in  the 
margin    or  at  the  bottom  of  the  page. 

Rem. — Lower  case  letters  and  figures,  of  a  smaller  size,  or 
letters  and  figures  included  in  curves,  are  used  for  reference 
marks. 

VI.  A    long    dash    [ ]    or    several    asterisks 

[****]    denote   the   omission   of   letters   in    a  word, 
of  words   in  a  sentence,  or  sentences   in  a  paragraph. 

Ex.— Miss  M  *  *  *  *  n.     Mr.  A h. 

VII.  The  Brace  [  /— -* — s  ]  connects  a  number  of 
words  with    a   common   term. 

VIII.  Paragraph  [%]  denotes  the  beginning  of  a 
new  subject. 

IX.  The  Section  [§]  denotes  the  divisions  of  a 
sentence. 

X.  The  Tilde  [  ft"  ], — a  Spanish  mark  placed  over 
7i, — annexes  to  it  the  sound  of  y;  as,  cano7if  pro- 
nounced  can-yon. 

XL  The  Cedilla  [  9  ], — a  French  mark,  joined  to 
e, — gives    to    this   letter   the   sound   of  s;    as,  facade. 

XII.  The  Caret  [a]  is  used  in  writing,  to  show 
that  some  letter,  word,  or  phrase  has  been  omitted. 

a  not  countries 

Ex. — The  sesons  are  alike  in  all  of  the  same  region,, 
A  A  A 


252  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

XIII.  The  Macron  [-]  marks  a  long  sound,  as  in 
lone;  the  Breve  [>•],  a  short  sound,  as  in  ndt;  the 
Dieresis  [••]  separates  two  vowels  into  two  syllables, 
as  aeriform. 

XIV.  The  Acute  Accent  [']  commonly  denotes  a 
sharp  sound;  the  Grave  Accent  [*],  a  depressed  sound; 
the  Circumflex  Accent  [  v  or  "7  ],  a  broad  sound. 

Rem. — In  most  works  on  elocution,  the  acute  accent  denotes 
the  rising  inflection;  the  grave  accent,  the  falling  inflection; 
the  circumflex,  a  union  of  the  acute  and  the  grave. 

EXERCISES. 

Note  to  Teachers. — Exercises  in  punctuation  may  be  selected 
from  the  Readers  in  general  use.  Require  pupils  to  give  rules  or 
cite  remarks  for  the  use  of  all  the  points  they  may  find.  Select, 
also,  passages  from  good  authors,  and  pronounce  the  words  in  con- 
secutive order,  slowly  and  distinctly,  as  in  a  spelling  lesson,  with- 
out indicating  the  grammatical  construction  by  tone  or  inflection. 
Require  pupils  to  write  these  as  pronounced,  and  to  separate  them 
into  sentences  and  parts  of  sentences  by  the  proper  points. 

Punctuate  properly  the  following  examples,  and  observe   the  rules  for 
the  use  .of  capitals  : 

What  tubero  did  that  naked  sword  of  yours  mean  in  the 
battle  of  pharsalia  at  whose  breast  was  its  point  aimed  what 
was  then  the  meaning  of  your  arms  your  spirit  your  eyes  your 
hands  your  ardor  of  soul  what  did  you  desire  what  wish  for 
I  press  the  youth  too  much  he  seems  disturbed  let  me  re- 
turn to  myself    I  too  bore  arms  on  the  same  side         cicero 

presently  my  soul  grew  stronger  hesitating  then  no  longer 
sir  said  I  or  madam  truly  your  forgiveness  I  implore 
but  the  fact  is  I  was  napping  and  so  gently  you  came  rapping 
and  so  faintly  you  came  tapping  tapping  at  my  chamber  door 
that  I  scarce  was  sure  I  heard  you     here  I  opened  wide  the 
door    darkness  there  and  nothing  more  poa 


PART    IV 


PROSODY 


252.   DEFINITIONS. 

1.  Prosody  treats  of  the  quantity  of  syllables,  of 
accent,   and   of  the   laws   of  versification. 

2.  A  Verse  is  a  line  consisting  of  a  certain  number 
of  accented  and  unaccented  syllables,  disposed  accord- 
ing to  metrical  rules. 

3.  Versification  is  the  art  of  metrical  c6mposition. 

4.  Discourse  is  written  either  in  Prose  or  Verse. 

5.  Prose  is  discourse  written  in  language  as  ordina- 
rily used,  having  reference,  mainly,  to  a  clear  and  dis- 
tinct statement  of  the  author's  meaning. 

6.  Poetry  is  discourse  written  in  metrical  language. 
Its  aim  is  to  please,  by  addressing  the  imagination  and 
the  sensibilities. 

7.  Poetry  is  written  either  in  Rhyme  or  Blank  Verse. 

8.  Rhyme  is  a  correspondence  of  sound  in  the  last 
syllables  of  two  or  more  lines,  succeeding  each  other 
immediately,  or  at  no  great  distance. 

Ex. — "Onward  its  course  the  present  keeps; 

Onward  the  constant  current  sweeps." 

(258) 


254  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 

Rem.  I. — Perfect  rhymes  require,  (1)  that  the  syllables  be  ac- 
cented, and  that  the  vowel  sounds  be  the  same;  (2)  that  the 
sounds  following  the  vowels  be  the  same;  (3)  that  the  sounds 
preceding  the  vowels  be  different. 

Ex. — Talk  and  walk,  town  and  crown,  are  perfect  rhymes.  Breathe 
and  teeth,  home  and  come,  are  imperfect  rhymes. 

Rem.  2. — A  single  rhyme  is  an  accented  syllable  standing 
alone  at  the  end  of  a  line;  as,  mind,  refined.  A  double  rhyme 
consists  of  an  accented  syllable,  followed  by  an  unaccented 
one;  as,  dreaming,  seeming.  A  triple  rhyme  consists  of  an  ac- 
cented syllable,  followed  by  two  unaccented  ones;  as,  fearfully, 
cheerfully. 

Rem.  3. — A  couplet,  or  distich,  consists  of  two  lines  rhyming 
together.     A  triplet  consists  of  three  lines  rhyming  together. 

Rem.  4. — Middle  rhyme  is  that  which  exists  between  the  last 
accented  syllables  of  the  two  sections  of  a  verse  or  line. 
Ex. — "  We  were  the  first  that  ever  burst 
Into  that  silent  sea." — Coleridge. 

9.  Blank  Verse  is  verse  without  rhyme. 

10.  A  Stanza  is  a  group  of  Hues  forming  a  division 
of  a  poem. 

253.   POETIC  FEET. 

1.  A  Foot  is  a  certain  portion  of  a  line  in  poetry, 
combined  according  to  accent. 

2.  Accent  is  a  stress  of  voice  on  a  certain  syllable  of 
a  word  or  foot. 

Rem.  I. — In  Greek  and  Latin,  verse  is  made  according  to 
the  quantity  of  syllables;  i,  e.,  the  relative  time  employed  in 
pronouncing  them.  A  long  syllable  requires  twice  the  time  in 
uttering  it  that  a  short  one  requires. 

In  English,  verse  is  composed  wholly  according  to  accent. 
An  accented  syllable  is  considered  long;  an  unaccented  sylla- 
ble, short. 

Rem.  2. — In  poetry,  monosyllables  receive  accent. 
Ex. — "And  to'  |  and  fr</f  |  and  in'  \  and  outf. 


PEOSODY.  255 

3.  The  principal  feet  used  in  English  verse,  are  the 
Iambus,  the  Trochee,  the  Spondee,  the  Pyrrhic,  the 
Anapest,  the  Dactyl,  and  the  Amphibrach. 

Rem. — In  the  formulas,  an  accented,  or  long  syllable,  is 
represented  by  a;  an  unaccented,  or  short  syllable,  by  u. 

4.  The  Iambus  consists  of  an  unaccented  and  an  ac- 
cented syllable.     Its  formula  is  u  a. 

Ex. — "A  mind7  |  not  to7  |  be  changed7  j  by  place7  |  or  time7." 

5.  The  Trochee  consists  of  an  accented  and  an  un- 
accented syllable.     Its  formula  is  a  u. 

Ex. — "  Eu7in  |  seize7  thee,  |  ruth7less  |  king7." 

6.  The   Spondee   consists   of  two   accented   syllables. 

Its  formula  is  a  a. 

Ex. — "  Rocks7,  caves7,  |  lakes7,  fens7,  |  bogs7,  dens7,  |  and  shades7  | 
of  death7." 

7.  The  Pyrrhic  consists  of  two  unaccented  syllables. 
Its  formula  is  u  u. 

Rem. — The  pyrrhic  is  sometimes  used  in  iambic  verse,  to 
avoid  accenting  an  unimportant  word. 

Ex.— "What  could7  |  be  less7  |  than  to  |  afford7  |  him  praise7?" 

8.  The  Anapest  consists  of  two  unaccented  and  an 
accented  syllable.     Its  formula  is  u  u  a. 

Ex. — "All  at  once7  \  and  all  o'er7  |  with  a  might7-  [  y  uproar7," 

9.  The  Dactyl  consists  of  one  accented  and  two  unac- 
cented syllables.     Its  formula  is  a  u  u. 

Ex. — "Heed7  not  the  |  corpse7,  though  a  |  king's7,  in  your  |  path7." 

10.  The  Amphibrach  consists  of  one  unaccented,  one 
accented,  and  one  unaccented  syllable.  Its  formula  is 
u  a  u. 

Ex. — "A  pret7ti-  |  er  din7ner  j  I  nev'er  |  set  eyes7  on." 


256  ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 

11.  A  long  or  accented  syllable  used  as  one  foot,  is 
called  a  Caesura. 

Be—Gold',  !  gold',  |  gold',  |  gold'! 

12.  A  foot  of  three  unaccented  syllables  Is  called  a 
Tribrach.     It  is  rarely  found  in  English  poetry. 

Rem.  I. — The  iambus  and  the  anapest  are  interchangeable. 
Ex. — "  There    were   grace'-  |  ful    heads',  |  with    their   ring7-  |  lets 
bright'. 

Rem.  2. — The  trochee  and  the  dactyl  are  also  interchange- 
able. 

Ex. —  "Joy'  to  the  |  spir'it  |  came', 

Through'  the  wide  |  rent'  in  j  Time's  e-  |  ter'nal  |  veil'." 

Rem.  3. — The  following  lines,  by  Coleridge,  will  assist  in  re 
membering  the  character  of  the  different  kinds  of  feet: 
"  Tro'chees  |  trip'  from  |  long7  to  |  short'. 
From  long'  |  to  long',  |  in  sol'-  |  emn  sort,' 
Slow'  Spon'  |  dee'  stalks' ;  |  strong7  foot',  yet  |  ill'  able 
Ev'er  to  |  come'  up  with  |  Dac'tyl  tri-  |  syl'lable. 
lam'  |  bics  march'  |  from  short'  |  to  long7. 
With  a  leap'  |  and  a  bound',  |  the  swift  An'  |  apests  throng'. 
One  syl'la  |  ble  long',  with  |  one  short'  at  |  each  side', 
Amphi'brach-  1  ys  hastes'  with  |  a  state'ly  |  stride." 

254.  KINDS   OF  VERSE. 

1.  Verse  is  named  from  the  kind  of  foot  which  predomi' 
nates  in  a  line;  as,  the  Iambic,  from  the  iambus;  the  Trochaic. 
from  the  trochee;  the  Anapestic,  from  the  anapest;  the  Dactylic. 
from  the  dactyl. 

2.  A  verse  containing  one  foot  is  called  a  Monometer ;  one 
containing  two,  a  Dimeter;  one  containing  three,  a  Trimeter; 
one  containing  four,  a  Tetrameter;  one  containing  five,  a  Pen- 
tameter; one  containing  six,  a  Hexameter;  one  containing  seven, 
a  Heptameter ;  and  one  containing  eight,  an  Odometer. 

3.  Verse,  therefore,  may  he -Iambic  Monometer,  Iambic  Dimeter, 
etc.;  Trochaic  Monometer,  Trochaic  Dimeter,  etc.;  Anapestic  Mono- 
meter, A  napestic  Dimeter,  etc. ;  Dactylic  Monometer,  Dactylic  Di- 
meter, etc. 


PROSODY.  257 

4.  A  verse  or  foot  in  which  a  syllable  is  wanting  at  the 
end,  is  called  catalectic:  a  full  verse  or  foot  is  called  acatalectic: 
a  verse  or  foot  in  which  a  syllable  is  wanting  at  the  beginning, 
is  called  acephalous:  a  line  which  has  a  redundant  syllable  at 
the  end,  is  called  hypermeter  or  hypercatalectic. 


255.   POETIC  PAUSES. 

1.  There  are  two  pauses  in  every  verse :  a  Final  and 
a  Ccesural. 

2.  The  Final  Pause  is  a  pause  made  at  the  end  of  a 
line,  in  reading. 

Rem. — This  pause  should  always  be  observed  in  reading 
verse,  even  when  not  required  by  the  grammatical  construc- 
tion. 

3.  The  Caesural  Pause  is  a  pause  in  a  verse. 

Rem. — The  csesural  pause  is  a  natural  suspension  of  the 
voice  in  reading.  The  shorter  kinds  of  verse  are  without  it. 
Its  natural  place  is  near  the  middle  of  the  line;  but  the 
sense  often  requires  that  it  be  placed  elsewhere. 

Ex. — "Warms  in  the  sun,  ||  refreshes  in  the  breeze, 

Glows  in  the  stars,  ||  and  blossoms  in  the  trees." — Pope. 

"And  on  the  sightless  eyeballs  ||  pour  the  day." 


256.   IAMBIC  MEASURES. 


1.  Iambic  Monometer  . 
Invite', 
Delight. 


Iambic  Dimeter  .  .  .  u  a  X  2 
And  called7  |  the  brave7 
To  blood7-  |  y  grave7. 


3.  Iambic  Trimeter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  3. 

What  sought7  |  they  thus7  |  afar7? 
Bright  jew7-  |  els  of7  |  the  mind7? 

4.  Iambic  Tetrameter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  4. 

Majes7  |  tic  mon7-  |  arch  of7  |  the  cloud7! 
Who  rear'st7  |  aloft7  |  thy  re7-  |  gal  form7. 
H,  G,-]7. 


258  ENGLISH  GEAMMAE. 

5.  Iambic  Pentameter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  5. 

O  then7,  |  methought7,  |  what  pain7  |  it  was7  |  to  drown7 1 
What  dread7-  |  ful  noise7  |  of  wa7-  |  ters  in7  |  my  ears7! 

Rem. — This  is  often  called  Heroic  Measure,  because  epic  or 
heroic  poetry  is  written  in  it.  Ehymed  iambic  pentameter  is 
sometimes  called  Heroic  Couplet. 

6.  Iambic  Hexameter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  6. 

Our  sweet7  I  est   songs7  |  are   those7  |  which   tell7  |  of   sad7-  | 
dest  thought7. 

Rem.— This  verse  is  called  Alexandrine. 

7.  Iambic  Heptameter  .  .  .  .  u  a  X  7. 

How  hard7  |  when   those7  |  who   do7  J  not  wish7  |  to  lend7,  | 

thus  lose7,  |  their  books7, 
Are  snared7  |  by  an7-  |  glers, — folks7  |  that  fish7  |  with  lit7-  j 

era7-  |  ry  hooks7! 

8.  Long  Meter  is  iambic  tetrameter,  arranged  in  stanzas  of 
four  lines,  rhyming  in  couplets  or  alternately. 

Ex. — Praise  God7  |  from  whom7  |  all  bless7-  |  ings  flow7: 
Praise  him7  |  all  creat7-  |  ures  here7  |  below7; 
Praise  him7  |  above7,  |  ye  heaven7-  |  ly  host7; 
Praise  Fath7  |  er,  Son7,  |  and  Ho7-  |  ly  Ghost7. 

9.  Common  Meter  is  a  stanza  of  four  iambic  lines,  the 
first  and  third  being  tetrameter;  the  second  and  fourth,  trim- 
eter. 

Ex. — Come  let7  |  us  join7  |  our  cheer7-  |  ful  songs7, 
With  an7  j  gels  round7  |  the  throne7: 
Ten  thou7-  |  sand  thou7-  |  sand  are7  ]  their  tongues7, 
But  all7  |  their  joys7  |  are  one7. 

10.  Short  Meter  is  a  stanza  of  four  iambic  lines,  the  first, 
second,  and  fourth  being  trimeter;  the  third,  tetrameter. 

Ex. — There  sin7  |  and  sor7-  |  row  cease7, 
And  ev7-  |  ery  con7-  |  flict's  o'er7; 
There  we7  |  shall  dwell7  |  in  end7-  |  less  peace, 
Nor  thirst7  |  nor  hun7-  |  ger  more7. 


PROSODY.  259 

11.  Hallelujah  Meter  is  a  stanza  of  six  iambic  lines,  the  first 
four  being  trimeter;  the  last  two,  tetrameter. 
Ex. — Now  may7  |  the  king7  |  descend7, 

And  fill7  |  his  throne7  |  of  grace7; 
Thy  seep7-  |  ter,  Lord7!  |  extend7, 

While  saints7  |  address7  |  thy  face7: 
Let  sin7-  |  ners  feel7  |  thy  quick7-  |  'ning  word7, 
And  learn7  |  to  know7  |  and  fear7  |  the  Lord7. 

Rem. — The  last  two  lines  are  frequently  separated  into  four, 
containing  two  iambics  each. 

12. — The  Elegiac  Stanza  consists  of  four  iambic  lines,  rhym- 
ing alternately,  with  the  formula  u  a~X5.     (See  Gray's  Elegy.) 

13.  The  Spenserian  Stanza  consists  of  nine  iambic  lines,  the 
first  eight  having  the  formula  «aX5,  the  last,  waX^i  the 
first  and  third  rhyming;  the  second,  fourth,  fifth,  and  seventh; 
and  the  sixth,  eighth,  and  ninth.    (See  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene.) 

14.  A  Sonnet  is  a  poem  complete  in  fourteen  iambic  lines. 
Its  formula  is  u  aX5. 

15.  Iambic  Hypermeters. 

ua-\-        Relent7-  |  ing. 

u  a  X  2  -f- Thine  eye7-  |  lids  quiv7-  |  er. 

u  a  X  3  +     .     .     .     .     'T  is  sweet7  |  to  love7  |  in  child7-  |  hood. 
ua  X  4  +     •     •     •  What  seek7  |  ye  from7  |  the  fields7  |  of  heav7-  |  en? 
u  a  X  5  +     .     .  The  air7  |  is  full7  |  of  fare7-  |  wells  to7  |  the  dy7-  j  ing. 
u  a  X  6  -f-     .     Thine  eye7  |  Jove's  light7-  |  ning  seems7,  |  thy  voice7  | 

his  dread7-  |  ful  thun7-  |  der. 
ua  X  7  -f     I   think7  |  I  will7  |  not  go7  |  with    you7  |  to   hear7  |  the 
toasts7  |  and  speech7-  |  es. 


257.   TROCHAIC  MEASURES. 


Trochaic  Monometer  . 

Changing, 

Ranging. 


Trochaic  Dimeter  .  .  a  u  X  2. 
Hope7  is  |  vanished, 
Joys7  are  |  ban7ished. 


Trochaic  Trimeter  ,  .  .  .  a  u  X  3. 
Then7  let  |  mem7'ry  |  bring7  thee 
Strains7  I  |  used7  to  |  sing7  thee. 


260  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

4.  Trochaic  Tetrameter  .  .  .  .  a  u  X  4. 

Tell7  me  |  not7  in  |  mournful  |  numbers, 
Life7  is  |  but7  an  |  emp7ty  |  dream7. 

5.  Trochaic  Pentameter  .  .  .  .  a  u  X  5. 

Nar7rowing  |  in7to  |  where7  they  |  sat7  as-  |  sem7bled, 
Low7  vo-  |  lup7tuous  |  mu7sic  |  wind7ing  |  trem7bled. 

6.  Trochaic  Hexameter  .  .  .  .  a  u  X  6. 

On7  a  |  mountain  |  stretched7  be-  |  neath7  a  j  hoar7y  | 

wil7low, 
Lay7  a  |  shep7herd  j  swain7,  and  |  viewed7  the  |  roll7ing  | 

bil7low. 

7.  Trochaic  Heptameter  .  .  .  .  a  u\7. 

In7  the  |  spring7  a  |  fee7ble  |  crim7son  j  comes7  up-  |  on7 
the  |  rob7in's  |  breast7. 

8.  Trochaic  Hypermeters. 

au-{-        Mer7ry  |  May7. 

a  u  X  2  +     .     .  • .     .     .     All7  that's  |  bright7  must  |  fade7. 
a  u  X  3  +     •     •     •     •     Chill7y  |  winder's  |  gone7  a-  |  way7. 
a  u  X  4  +     .     .     .     I7dle  |  af7ter  |  din7ner  |  in7  his  |  chair7. 
o«XH     .     .    Hail7  to  |  thee7,  blithe  |  spir7it!  |  bird7,  thou  | 

nev7er  |  wert7. 
a  u  X  6  +     .    Half7  the  |  charms7  to  |  me7  it  |  yield7eth,  |  mon7ey  | 

can7  not  |  buy7. 
au  X  7  +     Bet7ter  |  fif7ty  |  years7  of  |  Eu7rope  |  than7  a  |  cy7cle  ||  of 
Cath-  |  ay7. 


258.   ANAPESTIO   MEASURES. 

1.  Anapestic  Monometer  .  .  .  .  u  u  a. 

Move  your  feet7 
To  our  sound7. 

2.  Anapestic  Dimeter  .  .  .  .  u  u  a  X  2. 

In  my  rage7,  |  shall  be  seen7 
The  revenge7  |  of  a  queen7. 


PEOSODY.  261 

3.  Anapestic  Trimeter  .  .  .  .  u  u  a  X  3. 

I  have  found7  |  out  a  gift/  |  for  my  fair7; 

I  have  found7  |  where  the  wood7-  |  pigeons  breed'. 

4.  Anapestic  Tetrameter  .  .  .  .  u  u  a  X  4. 

Through  the  ranks7  |  of  the  Sax7-  |  ons  he  hew'd7  ]  his  red 
way7. 

Rem.  —  The   first   foot   of   an   anapestic  verse   may   be   an 
iambus. 

Ex. — Our  life7  |  is  a  dream7. 

5.  Anapestic  Hypermeters. 

v.  u  a  X  2  +     .     .     Like  the  dew7  j  on  the  mount7-  |  ain. 
uuaXH    •    •    Give  their  roof7  |  to  the  flame7,  |  and  their  flesh7  | 
to  the  ea7-  |  gles. 


259.   DACTYLIC   MEASURES. 


1.  Dactylic  Monometer  .  auu. 
Fearfully. 
Tearfully. 


2.  Dactylic  Dimeter  .  .  aw«X2. 
Cor7al  reefs  |  un7der  her, 
Kead7y  to  |  sun7der  her. 


3.  Dactylic  Trimeter  .  .  .  .  a  u  u  X  3. 

Wear7ing  a-  |  way7  in  his  |  usefulness, 
Love7liness,  |  beau7ty,  and  |  truth7fulness. 

4.  Dactylic  Tetrameter  .  .  .  .  a  u  w  X  4. 

Boy7  will  an-  |  tic7ipate,  |  lav7ish,  and  |  dis7sipate 
All7  that  your  |  bu7sy  pate  |  hoard7ed  with  |  care.. 

5.  Dactylic  Hexameter  .  .  .  ,auu><(5-)-au. 

List7  to  the  |  mourn7ful   tra-  |  di7tion  still  |  sung7  by  the  ) 
pines7  of  the  |  for'est. 

Rem.— A  dactylic  verse  rarely  ends  with  a  dactyl.  It  is 
sometimes  catalectic,  or  ends  with  a  trochee;  sometimes  hy- 
permeter,  or  ends  with  a  long  syllable. 

Ex. — Brightest  and  |  best7  of  the  |  sons7  of  the  |  morn7ing, 
Dawn7  on  our  |  dark7ness,  and  |  lend7  us  thine  |  aid7. 


262  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


260.   AMPHIBRACH  MEASURES. 

1.  Amphibrach  Monometer  .  .  .  .  u  au. 

Hearts  beaming,  Tears  starring, 

At  meeting;  At  parking. 

2.  Amphibrach  Dimeter  .  .  .  .  u  a  u  X  2. 

O  would7  I  |  were  dead7  now, 
Or  up7  in  |  my  bed7  now. 

3.  Amphibrach  Trimeter  .  .  .  .  u  a  u  X  3. 

A  breath7  of  |  submission  |  we  breathe7  not; 

The  sword7  we  |  have  drawn7,  we  |  will  sheathe7  not. 

4.  Amphibrach  Trimeter  Catalectic  .  .  .  .  u  a  u  X  3  —  . 

Ye  shep7herds  |  so  cheerful  |  and  gay7, 
"Whose  flocks7  nev-  |  er  care7less-  |  ly  roam7 

5.  Amphibrach  Tetrameter  .  .  .  .  u  a  u  X  4. 

The  flesh7  was  |  a  pict7ure  |  for  paint7ers  |  to  stud7y, 
The  fat7  was  |  so  white7,  and  |  the  lean7  was  [  so  rud7dy. 

6.  Amphibrach  Tetrameter  Catalectic  .  .  .  .  u  a  u  X  4  — . 

But  hang7  it, —  |  to  po7ets  |  who  seFdom  |  can  eat7, 
Your  vei^y  |  good  mut7ton's  |  a  vej/y  |  good  treat7. 


261.    MIXED  VERSE. 

Different   measures   are  frequently  used   in   the   same 
poem. 

Tell  what  feet  compose  each  line  of  the  following  example: 
Merrily  swinging  on  briar  and  weed, 
Near  to  the  nest  of  his  little  dame, 
Over  the  mountain-side  or  mead, 

Robert  of  Lincoln  is  telling  his  name, 
Bob-o-link,  Bob-o-link; 
Spink,  spank,  spink; 
Snug  and  safe  is  that  nest  of  ours, 
Hidden  among  the  summer  flowers. 
Chee,  chee,  chee. — Bryant. 


PKOSODY.  263 


262.    POETIC   LICENSE. 

Poetic  License  is  an  indulgence  in  the  use  of  peculiar 
Words,  forms,  and  expressions,  allowed  to  poets  by  com- 
mon consent. 

Rem.  I. — Poetic  license  permits  the  use  of  antiquated  words 
and  phrases,  foreign  words  and  idioms,  common  words  short- 
ened, lengthened,  or  changed  in  pronunciation,  and  any  ellip- 
sis that  will  not  destroy  the  sense. 

Ex. — Eke,  erst,  eyne,  eve,  beweep,  evanish,  albeit,  fount,  trow,  hight 
(called),  vastly,  wis,  ween,  wight,  etc.  "A  train-band  captain  eke  was 
he ; "  "  The  peace  rejected,  and  the  truce  retained; "  "  His  timeless 
death  beweeping ; "  "  [  He]  Who  steals  my  purse,  steals  trash ; " 
"Like  [a]  shipwrecked  mariner  on  [a]  desert  coast." 

Rem.  2. — It  permits  a  transitive  use  of  intransitive  verbs. 
Ex. — They  lived  the  rural  day,  and  talked  the  flowing  heart. 

Rem.  3. — Poets  make  use  of  an  inverted  order  of  arrange- 
ment more  frequently  than  prose  writers. 

Ex. — "Sunk  was  the  sun;"   "The  rattling  crags  among." 

263.   SCANNING. 

Scanning  is  an  analysis  of  versification.  To  scan  a 
line  is  to  divide  it  into  the  feet  of  which  it  is  composed. 

EXERCISES. 

1.  Sweet  day!  so  cool,  so  calm,  so  bright, 

The  bridal  of  the  earth  and  sky; 
The  dews  shall  weep  thy  fall  to-night; 
For  thou  must  die. — Herbert. 

2.  Under  the  greenwood  tree 
Who  loves  to  lie  with  me, 
And  tune  his  merry  note 
Unto  the  sweet  bird's  throat,- 

Come  hither,  come  hither,  come  hither! 

Here  shall  he  see  no  enemy 
But  winter  and  rough  weather. — Shakespeare. 


264  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

3.  Nature,  attend !  join,  every  living  soul, 
Beneath  the  spacious  temple  of  the  sky; 
In  adoration  join ;  and,  ardent,  raise 

One  general  song !     To  Him,  ye  vocal  gales, 

Breathe  soft,  whose  Spirit  in  your  freshness  breathes; 

Oh.  talk  of  Him  in  solitary  glooms, 

Where,  o'er  the  rock,  the  scarcely  waving  pine 

Fills  the  brown  shade  with  a  religious  awe. —  Thomson. 

4.  With  fruitless  labor,  Clara  bound 

And  strove  to  stanch  the  gushing  wound: 
The  Monk,  with  unavailing  cares, 
Exhausted  all  the  church's  prayers : 
Ever,  he  said,  that,  close  and  near, 
A  lady's  voice  was  in  his  ear, 
And  that  the  priest  he  could  not  hear, 
For  that  she  ever  sung, 
"  In  the  lost  battle,  borne  down  by  the  flying, 
Where  mingles  war's  rattle  with  groans  of  the  dying  I " 
So  the  notes  rung. — Scott. 

5.  Bird  of  the  wilderness, 
Blithesome  and  cumberless, 

Sweet  be  thy  matin  o'er  moorland  and  lea! 

Emblem  of  happiness, 

Blest  is  thy  dwelling-place, — 
Oh  to  abide  in  the  desert  with  thee ! — Hogg. 

6.  Full  many  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 

The  dark,  unfathomed  caves  of  ocean  bear; 
Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air. — Gray. 

7.  Thou  art! — directing,  guiding  all, — Thou  art! 

Direct  my  understanding,  then,  to  Thee; 
Control  my  spirit,  guide  my  wandering  heart; 

Though  but  an  atom  midst  immensity, 
Still  I  am  something  fashioned  by  thy  hand! 

I  hold  a  middle  rank  'twixt  heaven  and  earth, 
On  the  last  verge  of  mortal  being  stand, 

Close  to  the  realms  where  angels  have  their  birth, 
Just  on  the  boundaries  of  the  spirit  land. — Derzhaven. 


DIAGKAMS.  265 


DIAGRAMS. 

264.  EXPLANATION. 

1.  In  the  following  diagrams,  the  subject,  the  predi- 
cate, and  the  copula  of  each  principal  proposition  are 
placed  above  a  horizontal  base-line. 

2.  The  subject  is  separated  from  the  predicate  or  the 
copula  by  a  vertical  line  drawn  across  this  base-line. 
(See  Diagrams  I  and  II.) 

3.  The  copula  is  separated  from  the  predicate  by  a 
colon.     (See  Diagrams  I  and  II.) 

4.  The  objective  element  and  the  term  which  it  mod- 
ifies are  separated  by  a  vertical  line  drawn  to  the  hori- 
zontal line  below  them.  (See  Diagrams  IV,  XXIX, 
and  XXXIV.) 

5.  An  indirect  object  is  placed  on  a  horizontal  line 
above  a  direct  object.     (See  Diagram  X.) 

6.  An  object  denoting  a  person  or  thing  is  placed 
above  one  denoting  the  rank,  office,  or  character  of  the 
person  or  the  species  of  the  thing.     (See  Diagram  XI.) 

7.  A  noun  or  an  adjective  following  the  infinitive  or 
participle  of  a  copulative  verb  is  separated  from  it  by 
a  dash.     (See  Diagrams  XXXIV  and  XLVII.) 

8.  An  adjective  or  adverbial  element  is  placed  below 
the  term  which  it  modifies,  and  in  the  angle  formed  by 
a  vertical  and  a  horizontal  line.  Several  elements  of  the 
same  kind  may  sometimes  be  placed  in  the  same  angle. 
(See  Diagrams  XIII  and  XIV.) 

9.  Coordinate  conjunctions  are  printed  in  italics. 
They  should  be  underscored  in  written  diagrams.  (See 
Diagrams  XX,  XXIV,  and  XLI.) 


266  ENGLISH  GEAMMAR. 

10.  Subordinate  conjunctions,  when  not  used  as  con- 
junctive adverbs,  are  enclosed  by  curves.  (See  Diagrams 
XXXV  and  XXXVI.) 

11.  Conjunctive  adverbs  are  printed  in  italics  and 
enclosed  by  curves.     (See  Diagram  XXXIX.) 

12.  Expletives  and  other  attendant  elements  are 
placed  on  horizontal  lines  not  connected  with  lines  in 
the  diagrams.     (See  Diagrams  IX  and  XVIII.) 

13.  Words  supplied  are  enclosed  by  brackets.  (See 
Diagrams  XXXI  and  XXVII.) 

SIMPLE  SENTENCES. 

I.  Glass  is  transparent.  II.  John  looks  cold. 

Glass  |  is  :  transparent  John  |  looks  :  cold 

I  I 

III.  Birds  sing.  IV.  Farmers  sow  grain. 

Birds  |  sing  Farmers  |  sow  1  grain 

I  I 

V.  The  steamship  Hibernia  has  arrived. 
VI.  My  brother  broke  Eli's  slate. 

steamship  |  has  arrived  brother   |  broke  |  slate 


The  |  |_My  |  |  Eli's 

Hibernia 


VII.  The  sun  shines  brightly.  VH1.  He  is  not  handsome. 

sun  shines  He   |    is  :  handsome 

|  The  |  |  brightly  ,  )     |  not 

IX.  King  Agrippa,  believest  thou  the  prophets? 
X.  My  father  gave  me  a  good  book. 

King  Agrippa  ;  i  me 

thou  |  believest  \  prophets  father    |  gave  |  book 


the  |  My  | 


good 


Note. — The  places  which  direct  and  indirect  objects  should 
occupy  in  diagrams  are  indicated  in  Diagram  X.  The  indi- 
rect object  "me"  is  placed  above  the  direct  object  "book," 
and  a  line  is  drawn  between  them. 


DIAGBAMS— SIMPLE  SENTENCES.  267 

XL  They  have  chosen  Mr.  Ames  speaker. 
XII.  He  was  elected  president. 


They  [  have  chosen  I/Mr.  Ames  He  [  was  elected  :  president 

speaker 


XIII.  A  life  of  prayer  is  a  life  of  heaven. 
life |  is  :  life 


of  prayer 


of  heaven 


XIV.  Many  actions   apt  to  procure  fame  are  not  condu- 
cive to  our  ultimate  happiness. 

actions         |   are   :    conducive 

I  Many  J      |  not      |  to  happiness 
apt 


|  to  procure  |  fame 


our 
ultimate 


XV.  I  will  go  to-morrow.         XVI.  That  is  worth  while. 

I  |  will  go  That  \  is  :  worth 

|      |  []  to-morrow  [  []  while 

XVII.  There  was  much  grass  there. 

XVIII.  Clarence  seemed  to  be  their  leader. 

There  Clarence  |  seemed  to  be  :  leader 

I    was  I  their 


|  much  |       |  there 

Note. — "Seemed  to  be"  is  a  complex  or  strengthened  copula. 
"To  be"  is  an  adverbial  element  modifying  "seemed."  (See 
page  165,  Model  XXIII.) 

XIX.  Industry,    honesty,   and    economy    generally   insure 
success.  % 

XX.  I  alone  was  solitary  and  idle. 


Industry 


sty    \  |  insure  1  success  I |    was  :  /solitary 

and        /\      |  generally                  |  alone     j             N.       ^e 
economy/  > 


268 


ENGLISH  GKAMMAR. 


XXI.  He  came  and  went  like  a  pleasant  thought. 
1.  He  |  came  and  went 


like  thought 


2.  He  | 


came 

and 

went 


like  thought 


pleasant 


a 

pleasant 


XXII.  My  father  owns  a  factory  and  a  steamboat. 
father  |  owns  |  factory  and  steamboat 

"Llfi  Ei  \JL 


XXIII.  I  want  to  be  loved  and  to  be  lovely. 

XXIV.  Give  me  neither  poverty  nor  riches. 


I  |  want  I  /to  be  loved 

— j — — (  and 

'  \to  be  —  lovely 


,m(v^  neither 
[thou]  1  Give  \  /    poverty 
"\        nor 
riches 


Note. — "Neither"  introduces  the  compound  direct  objective 
element;  "nor"  connects  the  two  nouns  "poverty"  and 
"  riches." 

XXV.  The  soldiers  fought  bravely  and  successfully. 

soldiers  |  fought 
|  The    |       |  bravely  and  successfully. 


XXVI.  To  give  an  affront,  or  to  take  one  tamely,  is  no  mark 
of  a  great  mind. 


To  give  1  affront  or  to  take  |  one 
|  an  |  tamely 


is  :  mark 


no 

of  mind 


XXVfl.  Build  me  here  seven  altars. 
XXVIII.  The  pupils  were  forbidden  the  premises. 


me 
[ye]  1  Build       |  altars 

here  |      | seven 


pupils  j  were  forbidden 
|  The  |  \  []  premises 

1  the 


DIAGKAMS— COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 


269 


XXIX.  The  king  ordered  the  page  to  read  the  letter, 
page 


king       |  ordered' 


1  the 
to    read 


The  | 


letter 


the 


COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 


XXX.  The  credulity  which   has  faith  in  goodness,  is  a 
sign  of  goodness. 

credulity  is      :         sign 


The  | 

which  |  has  |  faith 


of  goodness 


|     |  in  goodness, 

XXXI.  That  the  earth  is  round  was  not  then  believed. 
(That)  earth     |  is  :  round 


the  | 


was  believed 


not 
then 


XXXII.  Except  ye  repent,  ye  shall  all  likewise  perish. 
ye  shall  perish 


all  | 


likewise 

(Except)  ye  |  repent, 


XXXIII.  The  charities  that  soothe,  and  heal,  and  bless, 
Are  scattered  at  the  feet  of  men  like  flowers, 
charities  Are      scattered 


The 
that  | 


soothe, 
and  heal, 
and  bless, 


at  feet 


the 
of  men 


like  flowers 


XXXIV.   The  gentleman  who  was  dressed  in  brown-once- 
black,  had    a   sort    of   medico- theological    exterior,  which  we 
afterwards  found  to  be  representative  of  the  inward  man. 
gentleman  |    had   |    sort 


The 

who  |  was  dressed 


of  exterior 


in  brown- 
once-black 


medico- theological 
we  |  found  |  which 


|  afterwards  |  to  be — representative 
|  of  man 
the 
inward 


270 


ENGLISH  GKAMMAR 


XXXV.  He  spake  as  one  having  authority. 
He  |  spake 

|  (as)  one  |  [speaks] 


having  |  authority 


XXXVI.  He  is  worth  more  than  you. 
He  |  is  :  worth 

]]  more 

|  (than)  you  [  [are  :  worth]. 
I 

Note. — In  this  sentence  "more"  is  an  adjective  used  as  a 
noun.  As  an  adjective,  it  can  be  modified  by  the  adverbial 
element  introduced  by  "  than." 


XXXVII.  He  who  does  as  he  lists,  without  regard  to  the 
wishes  of  others,  will  soon  cease  to  do  well. 

XXXVIII.  The  more  I  see  him,  the  better  I  like  him. 
He      |    will  cease    |    to  do  I  |  like  |  him 


[  soon           |  wel] 
who  |  does 

I 
shes 

better 
|  the 

I 

(as)  he  |  lists 

without  regard 

I  |  see  |  him 

|     |  more 

|  to  wi 

|  The 

the 

of  others 

XXXIX.  Near  yonder  copse,  where  once  the  garden  smiled, 
And  still  where  many  a  garden  flower  grows  wild, 
There,  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose, 
The  village  preacher's  modest  mansion  rose. 

mansion  rose 


modest  | 
preacher's 


The 
village 


Near  copse 

yonder 

garden    |    smiled 

ws  :  wild 

|  the   | 

once 
[where] 

And  flower 

1  gro 

There 

*        1  many  a  | 
1  garden 

still 
(where) 

shrubs   |   disclose   |   place 


a  |  (where)      |  the 


few 
torn 


DIAGRAMS— ABRIDGED  PROPOSITIONS.  271 

XL.  He  was  a  man  to  all  the  country  dear, 

And  passing  rich  with  forty  pounds  a  year. 

He  I  was  :  man 


a 

dear,                      And  rich 

|  to  country 
jail     1  the 

passing 
with  pounds 

1  forty 
1  []  year 
La 

COMPOUND  SENTENCES. 

XLI.  Every  man  desires  to  live  long;   but  no  man  would 
be  old. 

man [  desires  [  to  live  man      |  would  be  :  old 

|  Every  |  long  |  no   | 

XLII.  Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,  and  jocund  Day 
Stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain's  top. 

candles  I  are  burnt 

Night's  out 


Day             |  Stands 

j  jocund  | 

[on]  tiptoe 
on  top 

|  mountain's 

XLIII.  Talent  is  power ;  tact  is  skill.  |  the     |  misty 

Talent  |  is  :  power  [but]  tact  |  is  :  skill 

i  i 

ABRIDGED  PROPOSITIONS. 

XLIV.  I  know  him  to  be  a  sailor, 
him 


I  |  know 


|  to  be  —  sailor 


I 
Note. — The   abridged   proposition,  "him  to   be    a    sailor,"  is 
the  object  of  "know."     Instead  of  a  rule,  apply  the  first  part 
of  Rem.  1,  page  182,  in  parsing  "him"  and  "sailor." 

XLV.  I  was  aware  of  his  being  my  enemy. 

I  |  was  :  aware 
I  |  of  being  —  enemy 

his  |  my 


272  ENGLISH  GKAMMAK. 

XLVI.  The  shower  having  passed,  we  pursued  our  journey. 

we  |  pursued  |  journey 
| shower      |  our 
The 
having  passed 


Note. — "The  shower  having  passed"  is  an  abridged  propo- 
sition modifying  "pursued."  It  is  equivalent  to  "when  the 
shower  had  passed,"     (See  page  184,  Model  XXXVIII.) 

XLVII.  His  being  an  outlaw  was  not  known  to  his  com- 
panions. 


being  —  outlaw 
|  His          [an 

was 

known 

1 

not 

to  companions 

XLVIII.   Having   been   detained    by   this   accident,   he  lost 
the  opportunity  of  seeing  them. 

he |  lost  |  opportunity 


the 

of  seeing  |  them 


(Having  been  detained  | 
I  by  accident 
|  this 

Note. — Teachers  are  referred  to  Irish's  "  Grammar  and 
Analysis  Made  Easy  and  Attractive  by  Diagrams,"  published 
by  Van  Antwerp,  Bragg  &  Co.,  for  a  further  exposition  of  the 
use  of  diagrams  in  connection  with  analysis. 


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